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LevowTION.
THE PiiSow RESELLION
YEARS , 1968-1972,

BY DAN BERGEC
AWD TOUSSAINT
LOSER

(Zo18)


REVOLUTION
The Prison Rebellion Years, 1968-1972

In the early morning henrs ef October 9, 1970, « small bomb eecked behind a
telephone bocth exploded imide the Leng land City Courthouse. No one was
‘hurtin the bombing, which caused enoagh éamage that the building was closed
until it could be rehabbed. The Queens ourthowse was primarily ased ssa tale
courts hy adacent to the Queens Brarch House of Detention, put of the citys
sprawling ail complex that hal witnesced a series of miltant uprisings euler that
wees, The bombing was carried out by the Weather Underground, » miktane
offshoot of the predominantly white antiwar youth organization, Students for
Democraie Society In tating credit forthe atic, the group wonnected conditions
in the “slave ships ofthe ewentieth century” tothe Vietnam Wi. Bet highligined
the injustice of American racism aid militarism. Yet, there was something else the
row nored. Rathe: than be cowed into submisicn by the overwhelming force
arrayed aginst them, prisoners and peasants could generate a heated revolutionary
Potency The revols were not just simultaneots—they irspied each other
‘The Weather Underground’ statement referenced prison revolts in Calfomnin,
"NewYork and American-un prisons inVietnam as evidence ofthis spirit"The jails
«an no longer contain the revolution"!

‘This bombing, one of many that occurred in support of prisoner demanés at
the sme, occa:ted at the height of the American prison movement. Betmven
1968 and 1972, which Chicano poet ané former prisoner Rail R. Salinas called
{he “prison rebellion years’instutions wimessed an unprecedented sale of proest,
Prisoners stagrd boycotts and ctrikes, forned hborunioas, and tock over whole
Prisons with guards as hestages to press their demands. Prisoxers wrote popular
lwoks and produced their own newspapers, and were Fortayed a sympathetic
Figures, The image of prisoners coulee fonind across art, musi, lm, ana! iverauae>
4 thi time, Prisoner became symtols of, ané spokespeople for, broader radieal




Revolution: The Prison Rebelion Years 73

‘movements. They abo won some significant, hard-fought reforms t their condi~
sions of imprisonment ard continued to mount leg challenges that would skape
the criminal jessie system for decales ta come.”

In addition to the legal rights they at cimes secured, the courtibom battles to
guarantee rights for ncarverated people in the early years ofthe 1960s gave pri
foners 2 éghting sprit that they channeled into the miliant vprisings thar began.
late: in the dezade. The rebelions between 1968 and 1972 were more exphiiely
interconnected and mor: slf-consciousy radical shan those in the earky 1950s.
During the wbellon years, prisoner uprisngs linked their conditions with
critiques of Americin capitalism, racism,and impenalism. AS they di so, disitent
privnen enjeyed sn unprecedented arrount of support from people who were
notincarceraed, Fer some, it seemed tha: prisoners were leading radical challenges
{0 the gobal poligcal orer.

Rebellions browght prisoners together across te socal hierarchies that typi-
‘ally divided them-—especially racim but alo religious difference and other rts
“Thue sprie of unity, forged in the intensity of a hellion waged in captivity. was
often fleeting Yet, mere existence proved insp-atioral to other prisoners and
many outside observers. Prison uprisings anspired other prisoners to rebel wliere
they were. Several of the most significant rebellions in this period, and dozens of
‘minor ones, began in solidarity with uprisings at other prisons. Pethaps inearcer~
ated people did constitutes sone of them declared atthe time, s"“convic elas”

"These rebellions were facilitated in part by conneciion to social movements,
expecially among Black Powsr an New Leférackcals. Organizations sach 3 the

‘ck Panther Party (BPP; founded in 1966),the Republic of New Afrika (RNA;
founded in 1968), and the Yeung Lords Party (YLP;a Puereo Rican ongasization
founded in New York in 1969), alongside longeme radical groups such as the
‘Communist Party and Natienal Lawyers Guild (NLG;founded 1937) helped in
nny ways. These and other ongaaisations enculaed news of prison rhellions in
their publicaions and commuaniy education clases. They raised funds to hire
lawyers or, where appropriate, donated thesr legal skis freey. Representatives of
radical groups acted on negotiation teams in some prison uprisings, working
alongside politicians, journasts, and others to represent prisoner interests, Some
Contribated even more dircely: they organized wih other prisoners after being
Sncatcerated for their own political activism, While som prisoners became activist
fut of simple frusraticn with their conditions, ther acuvsts became prisoners
“They helped each other, the seasoned actviss providing poltial education while
the longtime prisoners prov-ding knowledge of how to navigate or undermine <
particular institution

‘The wave of prison rebellions followed a historic wave of arban rebellions
against racist hing, housing, and policing prctices, and against the var in
Viewam. Cities aound the courtry hid gone up in Tames every summer since
1964, most dramatically in she Watts neighborhood of Los Angeles in 1965 and








7A. Revohiton: The Pcon Rehalon Years

fn Deutit and Newark in 1967. ‘These disturbances caused teas of millions of
dallarsin damages and were violextly put dawn by police. often with the assistance
of the National Guard. In responie, President Lyndon Johnion announced a "war
‘on crime” and began an extensive miliarieasion of police departments around the
country. There were more than 100 uprisings after the Reverend Dr. Martin
Luther King, J. was asassinated in April, Student protests shut down college
‘campuses in protest of academic complicity in the Vietnam War anil anablack
racism, The year ended with Richard Nixon, conservative Republican who had
‘campaigned on a “law and order” platform, promising to crack dawn even harder
fon these protests, winning the presidency.?

‘The revole happening in inner cities in the mid-1960s migrated to prison by
the end of the decade. In 1967, there were fve recorded rios in prisors across the
country: The number eripled in 1968, and grew to 27 in 1970 and 37 in 1971
By 19/2, there were a least 48 such re>ellions—the most in any one-year of US,
history‘ Much asthe urban uprisings elucidated the chtonic problems American
Cites, 0 too did the prison rebelion years expese the deep-seated isues Facing
the country’ prisoners. In alling attention to this “low visbility revolution.” +
working group of the American Friends Service Committee descrihed the seals
ofrevok in 1971



4m penitentiaries in Indiana and Florida, in ails in New York City and the
District of Colurabia, and in California's San Quentin, o name but a few
‘out of hundreds, prisoners have gone on strike have lashed ot at the symbub
of their imprisonment, have even maimed themselves to
their pighe,



attention to

Tellingly the AFSC. went on to ay that prsoners were rejecting the donsinant
modes of minageialom “These upheavale warn the pubic Uist prionets will
no longer submit to whatever is dor
‘reinabiliadon.™*
‘This rejection of prison manigerislsm was connected to the Blick Powsr
revement and the shifting demographics of incaceraion. A government repor:
onthe 1971 Attica prison uprising decared:

to chem in the name of ‘treatment’ o-



[That prisoners were] part of a new kreed of young, more aware inmates,
laigely Black, who came to prison fall of deep feelings of alienation anc
hostility againse the established instiations of law and government
andl an unwillingness to accept the petty humiliations znd racist that
characterize prison life!

What the government filed wo note is thar Blac prisoner were “more aware”
Precisely becuse they were being incarcerated at highly ésparte percentages.
‘the rate of Black inemceration had risen throughout the 196s, eren as the
Revolution The Prison Rebelion Years 75

decade “produced the single lagest reduction in te population of federal and
state prisens in the nation’s hicory”” Thus, while the overall ncarcerauon rate
remained relatively stable until 1973, thioughout the 1960s, prisons filed with
"more young mien of zolorin the prime of theirlives as radical moverventsinc
munis of color eangeted the eiuiual justice systera as asource of oppression. In
‘Masichusets and linois, New Yor‘ and Calfornc, prisons became increasirgly
fillee with young African Americans

“Their complaints ranged fot routine physical and sexual abuse to lack of
political and reigious freedom, abominable health care, compulsory labor for low
wages, and lack of due proces: at all leels of the eriminal justice system. In a
nation prmed to loak South for incidens of racist violence, Southern prisoners
hhad some success drawing public atention to prison violence in the luxe 1950s.
Mow Gans, she Arkansas prison aystrn became a national disgrace





cer the
new warden discovered an unmarked grave of murdered prisoners on the grounds
of Cummins Prisor. Farm in 1968 Yet the biggest crises of prison legitimacy
happened in the North and West, especially Calnrnia and New York, where
strong lekist movements and abysral prison conditions collided in particulirly
vivid ways

Fach state witnessed significan: prison rebellions that seemed increasingly
linked in both form ane content. The prison movement in both states shared
siraigics inl Ales in « siutlly seinforcing fisbion, which chen indduerced
activities elsewhere in the country. At least three ‘ctor shaped why these two
states emerged as such significant sies for prisoner ietivism. Fist both California
and New York clined te he cosmapalinn areas, including in che realm of crimi-
ral justice. New York had initiated penal manageriaism in the nineteenth cenary
4s an alternative ¢0 prison slavery. After te Second World War, California experi=
‘mented with rehabiliatve punishment threugh its indeterminate sentencing,
literacy access called “bibliotherapy.” and therapeutic behavior management
programs. Yee the reat







‘of peozle in prison, a8 well as police violence om the
streets, suggested that liberalism could be as crue! and racist as is conservative
‘counterpars.

Second, each place had vibrant lef movements concentrated in Blick com=
‘munities Black radicalism anchored a multiracial opposition to prison, especially
as the demographi:s oF imearctation shified in both olaces to create a prison
systom that was increaingh—in some places, majority—Blck. The stong
Nation of Ilan presence in California and New York endoubtedly played a role
Ihere as well, Finally, New York City, Los Angeles, an San Francisca were cheee of
the biggest media markess in the world. Their reposting circulated widely, making
potennaly local prison rebellions into global uprisings.

None of these condiions alone wotld have suficed. Howeve, their conver-
igence captured the national 2zitgest. In exposing the sttk, often racist realitss of
Anerican priv « dispsopossionstely Black group of prisoners in California and
[New York overturred the prevailing wistom that such institutions were—orever




176 Relation: The Prison Rebelion Years

could te—sites of rehabilitation. Heard around the world, hese >rotets garnered
beth public sympithy and condemnaton, By the eatly 1970s, growing mamber
‘of Americans believed that prison itself was the problem. As pritoners developed
shidy groups, mutial aid societies, and politcal oganizarios inside of prisons, the
reform or abolition of prisons was a tepic of national concern,



Jn February 1968, several prisones at California's San Quentin circulated cll for
a strike. Writing in an underground newspaper called The Outlaw, they ovtlined
their grievances: parole reform, better food znd liring conditions increased wages
for Inbor, and meving people convicied of sexsal offenses agcinst children to
‘mental instcations, Oficials tried to stop the newspaper by transferring the sus.
pested jourmalists, But kept appearing. Even more, news ofthe strike spread ¢o
a radical newspaper outside of prison The Berkeley” Barb was one of the largest
tundergrouné newspapers ofits era, covering the New Left, counterculture, and
‘current evens for its sprawling Day area audience. the Barb reprinted The Outlay
fo drum up support for the strike and printed several stories about iscies at
San Quentin”

On Fehmary 15, 20 percent of the San Quentin prise populaton—about
70) people—refised to leave thir cell. More than 400 people gathered at the
prion gaes o express their support, Rock kands the Gratefal Dead, County Jor
and the Fish, and Phocnix performed a free concert on a flatbed truck for the
stckers inside and the protestors outside. Such pablie support encouraged more
prkoners to strike. Por the rest of the week, more than 2,60) people, about
75 percent of the prison population, went on strike. The Peace and Freedom
Party, a mostly white antiwar organizztion that would nominate Bl
and former San Quentin prisoner Eldridge Cleaver to be the couity$ president
in that years elecsion, held sympathy demonstretions daily at the prison gates,
Peboners held a one-day “unity strike” thst August;"A UNITY that includes
every man wearing blue denim, a UNITY that inclides every wan that is swore
of the nced to overthrow the [Calfornia Department of Corrections) if we ate to
fever again be dealt with ay nan au unt as erate [ie]!

Popular atention was foctsed on the Bay area for another reaso7 in the summer
‘of 1968:the tial of Huey Percy Newton began that July. Two years earlier, Newton
cofounded the Black Panther Party with Bobby Seale with an ambitious politica:
Program, Its demands inclided an end to police violence, adequate housing, fal
‘employment, and ffeedom for Black people in jails and prisons (as racism ane
«eccnomic inequality denied them fair tial). The Panthers'sttenton to the crit
inal justice system owed to the frequency of police violenc: and arrest, Newtor
had bees incarcerted es « juvenile for peuty offenses, as were any other ealy
recruits 0 the BPP The BPP saw curreat and former prisoncrs asa natural exten
sion of she Black working class that was its base. The group combined armed






Revoution: The ison Rebelion Years. 77

patrols ofthe police with rogram providing education, clothing, and health care
to Blick communities.”

FRI Direcar]Regar Hoover declated them “the greatest threat the intemal
security 0° the United States" Local police took note. Oakland police kept alist
‘of known Black Panther vehicles. When officer Jon Frey ypouted one such ca
‘pass him in the early morning kours of October 28, 1967,he caled for backup and
pulled it over, Frey, who “had been implicated in numerous incidents of raciun,”
conffonted Newton. In the éneuing alereaion, Fey was billed ané Newton snc
shotin the stomach, From that point forward, the BEP was precccupied with wit
ning Newton's freedom. Like earlier detexse campaigns the one for Newton sas
premised less on his innocence than the stems guilt. Tae “Free Huey! rallying
‘ery became a means of discussing the Panthers'lages agenda of aniracist socialism
(whee hey called revolutionary Black rtisuali)- As Newton came tial inthe
summer ef 1963, the Black Parkhers became a household name. Chapterssprouted
up around the couny and then arcund the world. Adding to his allure, Newton
continued his formal leadership of tne BPP while in jal. He issued proclamations,
including the requitemene that all BPP members acquire the sills and ecuiprrent
necessary to defend themielves trom police atack, and granted media interviews

"The “Free Huey!” campaign wasled by Black Panther Minister of Information
Eldridge Cleaver. Cleaver had been in and out of prison since the age of 12. Most,
recently he had spent ine yeas in prison for having, committed a rape. While
in prison, Cleaver was fora time a leading member of the Nation of Islam in San
‘Quentin and Folsom, He left the Nation along with Malcolm X;he left prison in
1066, afer his atooney secured several lees of support for hit release fram
prominent figures who were, among othe: things, impressed wish CleaverS writing.
He ee prison to work atthe arogresive Kanparts magazine and then joined the
Panthers, Macho and apgressve, Cleaver had an uncanny knack for publiity

California governor Ronald Reagan tied to prevent bim ftom teaching a
at the University of California Berkeley Clesver challenged him 0 9 duel
and promised «© “beat him to death with a marshmallow."

‘While campaigning on bebalt ot Newton, Cleaver publsbed a book of essays
written while he was in pris. Saul on ee combined literary cricism, memoir,
policy analyss,and love leer. Widely praised for its raw, self-confessonal prose, the
bbook lobbed hornophobiccriticiiat walls Jamies Daldwin and described rape as
an “insurrectionary act” gains racism (where Black women served as practice for
hs real target, white women). The succes of the book, building on the acclaim for
Malcolm Xs autobiography three yeare caries, promised renewed interest in pis
‘oner wring, Cleaver’ critique of prison a the more brutal extension of American
racism piqued the popular interes. I catalyzed a new wave of pruoner bterccure
througheue the rebellion year and beyond. Ceaver wrote the following











Rather Jian owing and paying « debe 1 soci

they are being abused, that their imprisonment is imply another form of |

cg prisoners feel that


‘78 Re/ohtion: The Pris Rabalion Yeas

the oppression which they have known all their lives... leis only a matter
cf time untl the question of the prisoners debt to vocieyy vers society's
debt to the prisoner is injected forcefully into national and sate rolites,
into the civil and ursan rights struggle, and into the comciousness of the
body politic.

Americans were increasingly divided > to whether society owed prisonersa debt
orshould punish them even more heavily: The year ended with Newton's convic-
‘ion for marslaugiter snd being sentenced to serve between two and 15 years in
prison. Cleaver, facing a posible retura to prison in connection with thootovt
‘with police following the death of Martin Luther King fled the couatry, Before
leaving office, Lyndon johnson signed te Safe Smeets Act into law. ‘The Act con.
tinued Johnsons sweeping expansion of the crininal jastice system, fellowing his
{declaration ef a"war on crite” in 1965. In launching that domestic war, Johnson
created the Office of Law Enforcement Assistance, which in 1968 became the
{Law Enforcement Asisance Administration (LEAA). As a funding an¢ regulatory
beady dat would give tens of mlions of dollars to police departments over the
next decade, the LEAA provided much of the apparatus forthe wat on crime
‘Tegether wih the Safe Streets Act, it upported ncresingly militarized pelicing
atone the country. It bought feral anges to support the agressive pelicing
strategies that many municipalities had been puruing to politcal unrest, includ
ing SWAT teams and controversal undercover police unit acctsed of shecking
act of violence. By the 1970s, ir world help fund new prison construction
aswell,”

At the Demouratic National Convention thit summer, police beat peacefid
demonsiator live on camera while Republican Richitd Nixon won the White
House promsing to fix a country “plagued by bnvlessness™” Nixon had more
than the Panvhers in mind. The US, military incteasingly xcemed a riven with
social conflict as American cites, Black solders had long, protested racistn in the
rmtitary and dissident soldiess had been imprisoned for relasing deployment to
Vietnam since at least 1966, As tensions escalated elsewhere, o too did they
within the military. More thin 40 Black Gls staged a sitin at Fort Hood, Texas,
rather than be sent to police protestors at the Democratic National Convention,
Or July 23,a group of Black and white Gls st North Carolina’ Fort Bragg "rook
control of the stockade for forty-eight houn” to protest the besting of another
Black prisoner Weeks later. unruly soldier staged www rebellions in Us-rur
miltary prisons in Viemam. The soldiers—incarcerated for issues raring fom:
smoking pot to refising combat, going AWOL, or committing a violent offense
Protested overcrowding raciam, and other poor condions. In m- August, pris
‘oners seized the central compound at Da Nang for 20 hours; days later they set
fre to their cllblock to protest attempss at removing several prisoners. At the end
of the month, soldiers imprisoned at the US.-tun Long Binh Jail held what
‘Proved to be the lagest ich uprising ina miltary tocksde to date. The jail, which




Revoution The Prison Rebetion Years. 79°

troops had saeasticaly dubbed "LBJ" after then-presdent Lyndon B Johnson, was
‘overcrowded and had nstirated «new policy of srip-searching prsoness. The prison
population was almet 90 percent Black, making ie an oavious sign of ricism in
the military. During the uprising, prisoners destroyed much of the facility esuling
in 62 injures and one death, Afterwards they held 1 work strike."*

US. military prisons ard stockades were notimmune from the prison rebellion
‘years, Events at Da Nang, Long Binh, and Fort Bragg would be repeated at
lary ses id jl in the United States, Vietnam, and Germany over the next fur
year. The sca of resistance within the military dovetailed with resistance to che
military, 2s an increasing number of people burned their dratt cards, blocced
recruitment centers, or eherwise expresed their dscontent.“On any given day
in the late 19603" rpors scholar Tony Platt, “there were seme three hundred
anu-Vietnam war resisters in federal prisons for evading -he draft and acw of Gvil
disobedience”"” Those protesters were joined, fgurctively,by anumber of soldiers
who opposed the war or racism in the miliary. The scape of antivar sentient
Lriely siled over into the prison movement, reinforcing the idea chat prisons
incubated potent revolutionary chalenges to the satus cuo.







11969: Detense Campaigns and Cultural Resistance

Atterney Genetal John Mitexell simmurized the Nixon aduinibtration’ goal
when he told s reporter chat “this country is going so fir to the right you won't
recognize it!” Soon afier Nixon took office, pelitcal repression dramatically
‘ocalated. Activist secured some meral and even a few legal victories in this peri’,
tharks to the diligence of brcad-bised deferse campaigns. Several orgsnizations
even grew as result of che legal challenges they ficed. ‘ihe long-term effect of
‘such repression, however, severely Weakened the movements ofthis era

Fight antiwar acivise, inchiding Black Panther cofounder Bobby Seale, were
lnnlited its Masch 1969 for orgaaizing prosests against the 1968 Democratic
National Convention in Chicago, which descended into what a government
report called a “poke riot” Seale, the only nonwhite defencant ia che case, had
only spoken at the pte: he had played no part in organizing i. However, he
‘would face the harshest punishments the judge in she cise, an elderly conservitive
‘named Julius Hoffinan, had Seale Lound and gagyed in cour afer dhe defenanc
‘continued to demand either a awyer of his chcice or the oppomtnity to serve his
‘own attorney. His prefered lnwyer, the veteran lest arorney Charles Garry. was
lunergeang surgery at the time.) Determined to put the government on tril che
other defendants mocked the court. They came dressed in costumes, dsphiyed
the National Liberstion Front of Vietnam ilagon the defense able,and excorated
the government repeatedly The judge found al of the defendants plus their
lawyers guilty of contempt of court and sentenced them each to serve between
two and four years in prison for distepeccing the court. The jury delivered «
mized verdict on the actaal changes against them, acquitsing them all of conspiracy






{80 Revolution: The Prison Reselin Your.

bot Finding six of them guilty of irtent to riot. None of them served time:
‘An appeals court overturned the convictions and contempt charges in 19722"

Newton was i prison, Seale was injai, and Cleave: had fled the country. Local
BPP chapters ake Faced corsiderble legal attacks. In April 1969, federal prosect-
tors charged 21 memiters of the New York City BPP chapter with planning 10
bomb < series of ety landmarks. Set up by three paid informants and an overzea
‘us presecution, the “Panther 21” cate was one of the most seminal examples of
hhow federal and state agercies collaborated in their efforts to deroy tadical
neaeationsthieugh criminal prosections in the Nixon ers. The NY chapter
ws one of the biggest, most actve branches of the BPP. and the eave taok the
chapters leaders and cote members off the streets for two years. While a few
members fled underground to evoid artes, 16 people were jeiled for months
awaiting bail. Mos of them stayed in ji forthe ength ofthe iil.

‘They made the most of i. They belped organize a citywide jail rebelkon in
the fll 01970, They aso published a cllectve autobiograghy from jul, desiily
ing their respective journeys into the BPP. Conaecting their strgeles to 1 long
hhitory of Blick iscarceration and opposition, the autor titled their autobiogra-
phy Look for Mein the Whirlvind, after a famous kne fom a letter Rlack nationsl-
Jat leader Marcus Garvey wrote from prison in 1925. Garvey was convicted,
imprisoned, and deported ir the carly twentieth century wave of antradicalsm,
‘The New York Panthers fared alitde bette—but no: much. Although the case
‘ook two years to come to tral, a jury sequitted all the defendant in les than two
hours on May 12, 1974. Fearing farther represion and with cheir chapter in
shambles, however, several defendants elected to go underground after their

‘While the Panther 21 awaited rial in 1969, BEP leader Bobby Seale cansiied
to face legal trouble, After he was assaulted in a Chicago court, Seales cate wat
severed ffom the rest. Yet he was soon indicted slong with Ericka Huggins and
other members of the New Haven, Connecticut, chapter for kiling 1 suspected
po'ice informane within the BPE Seale and Huggins were arresed on the test-
mony of George Sams, an unstable person with a violent history who directed the
forcure and murder of the man in question, 15-year-old Alex Rackley. Many
Scholars suspect that Sans was the wily police informant in this scenario, as the
FBI notonly inflated che EPP but instructed itsinfotmants to we the orwaniza-
ttoa’ suspicions of police harassment to sew distrust. Eoking the history of slv-
enysupporters around the world charged that Seale had beea “kidnapped” by the
justice syste, Many people viewed the case as a set-up. Huggins, the mother of
‘an jatant, had just moved fo New Haven afer her husband, John Hugin, had
‘been murdered along with the leader othe Los Angeles BP? chapter (Alprentice
“Bunchy" Carter) by 2rival Black nationalist organizaton on the UCLA campur
in what was hter revealed to have bees att FBI-orchestated plot:

‘A national student stike in May 1970 shut doven campuses actos the country.
Although formally called to protest the expansion of the Vietnam War into Laos












Revoution: The Prison Rebelion Years 81

and Cambodia, the strike’ fist demand was for an end to the “systematic repres-
sion of politica dissidents an¢ |for the} releise al: political prisoners, such as
Bobly Seale and other members of the Black Panther Patty.” In New Haven,
Yale students went on strice and faulty wed the occasion to dscussracism in the
country. Hopirg to avert a fal-fledged uprising, the univerity’s president said
that he wes “skeptical ofthe ability of Black revolutionaries to achieve a fit eal
anywherein the United Seates.” The judge agreed. Whea the jury deadlockeé in
favor of acquinal the next your, he dianinied the chargos against Seale ind
Huggins.

‘A judge in Michigan spared other Black radicab a lengthy sentence as well.
In March af 1969, members of the Black nationalist Republic of New Affica
(later changed to “Aika” to keep with the Swahili linguistic practioe forthe hard
ec" vound in Englisa) held a meeting in Dewwit’s New Dede! Baptist Church,
‘The Church was pastored by the Reverend C.L, Franklin, a member of Marin
Lather King’s Southern Chrisian Leadership Conference and the father of soul
singet Aretha Franklin. The group had gathered tthe chusch to celebrate its
one-year anniversary and renew iis declared independence from the United
States. Aer a disturbance ouside, police surounded tae building and opered
fre.Some RNA member were armed and renurned fire. One officer was kiled,
and police arrested 140 prople inside the church, Judge George Crockett, one of
the only Black juris in Michigan, feared forthe defendants safety. He went co
the al, where people were being fingerprinted but denied acces to ato
and held an imprompai court there. By noon the next diy, most people nad been
relewed









chet sho citiczed Detroit poice for what he characterized «ash
bbehuvio; they. in sum, organized t have him rerroved from office.

‘The proffestor of detensecampaigs jouned eppostion the criminal ju
tice system with aunger framework of socal change. That cembiratior. inspired
4 multiracial ccalticn in defeme of ever Chicano men charged with kiling San
Fraisince police offcer in May of 1969. The oficer wakilledin a cul fier he
and his partner, who had a hisory of alcoholism and intimidating young men of
cole, confonied a group of Chicanos moving a television set rom a parked cat
into hoase Pubhing thx defendarts Ls Siete deh Rasa. the defense committee
developed into a Panthersyleconsmunity collective. The collective was embed
ded in the Bay area radical scene Black Pandher atorney Chutes Garty defenses
the men in court and the Panthers consistently covered the case in is weekly
newspaper. The Los Siew defense comnitte,many of whort had participated in
sucentsikesto csblisscthaiestadies at San Franciico State College, 2ublihed
its own newsl:ter, dedicated to “Third Worl” unity among people of color at
hhome and abroad. jury acquitte che men in 1970.”

“The San Francisca Fay ae: wa ako home to a surprising potest where people
bro‘einio prion, An ad hoc group, Indans of Al Tribes occupied Alcaraz Mlnd
fon November 20,1969, and rema:ned there une Jane 11, 1971. From 1994 v
1963, Akatraz had been the mos seve federal prison in the country. Too


'82_ Revolution: The Prison Rebelinn Year

“Pemsive to opeute the government closed the foreboding island prison, It ky
atandoned until the Indians of Al Tribes siled there znd took itewer The occ.
picts charged that only by scizing a physiel prison, even a closed ons, could the
daily imprisonment of indian life be made visible. Liberated Alearaz vas home to
3 motley crew of militants and hippies, a gathering of the disaffected fom among
"many Indian tribes, anc several veterans, who kept the Coast Gus from docking
atthe iland Berkeley’ KPFA ratio vation launched Redw Fee Ales, hal
hheus show that aired five days a week and featured a spokesperson for Indhans of
All Tribes, whicle was rebroadcast nationally”

Others picked up on the prison metaphor to describe their own feelings of
alicnation. The 1960s counterculzure romanticized “outlaw” fgeres ina series of
films, inetnding Bennie and Clyde (1967), Col Hurd Lake (1967), Butch Casi ad
‘he Sundance Kid {1968), and Eary Rider (1969). These movies featured young,
aractve actors whose characters robted banks sold drugs, and otherwise disre,
spected tradiional authority Petlaps one of the most enduring andiherocs of ths
‘moment came from a surprising source: country mui. In 1968, singer Johnmy
Cork seconded a lve concen at California’ Folom prisor. At the tme, prison
concerts were rovtine—Cash, fo example, had performed 30 times at various
ions over the preceding decade—but his album, A¢ Folsan Prion, was the fist
recording of 2 prison concert. Cash identified with the prisoners and even
Performed a song written by one of the Foliom prisoners

‘At Falsom became a best sller and rocketed the singer to mass popularity Cash
retarned to the Califomia prison system the following year to record an alburn
and a documentary, At San Quentin, The singer cursed and courted the prisoner?
applause and jecrs by taunting die guards. In "San Quentin,"Cash condemned the
insitution tc “rot and burn and hell” because it is a “living hell” Prisoner:
ssantly demanded tha: he play the song again. Cash’ performance was equally
successfil on the outside: At Son Quentin sold even more copics on icles than
At Folton and topped the Bilboar! charts for four weeks.

The succes of these owo albums brielly transformed Cash into a critic of
Prisons. In 1569, he donated $10,000 to the Inmste Welfare Fund at Foliors and
another $10,000 to the Sin Quentin fand, although prison administrator:
siphoned off he Finds, Cash testified before the US. Senate in 1972 in support of
Prison reform and told one writer, “I just con't think prisons do any goo
Nothing good ever came out ofa prison.”

1970: Crisis and Change

In California, the decade openee with a Hoody racst atack that anticisated
several years of violence in the state's prisen system. Tensions between Slack
Drioners and white prisoners ane white yuards had been rising for some time,
and in early January, W.L, Nolen warned his parents that he fel thatthe guards
were tying to kallhim. Arrested for robbery in 1963, Nolen was prison boxing
Revoution: The vison Rebellion Years 83

chanpion who studied Blk mations withsevenl prisoner ar Soledad aswell
SS peviouly av San Quentin and Fekom, Nolen file several lawsuits protesting
the ttcat aginst his le by white prisoners anche rank’ manipokaon of rca
tensions Soledad but he siuation had worsened by the beginning of 1570,
‘Nolen was ina wingof Soledad chat ha been locked down see the 1968 Kling
af run Back prisoners. Bocatse one ofthe men. Clarence Cavey, hd been
sealed on the prison yard, guard closed the integrated exercise yard. Yet, fey
abo continued stoke tions bsiween Dla and white prooners

‘On jruary13,Soledad guards opened the exerie yard nd le 15 prisoners
acces it for the fist ime in more shan 4 year. The groap included eight white
prbonors among dh Dille"Buard” Hari, leader of the white supremacist,
‘Anjan Brotherhood and seven Bick prisonen,inelading Nolen, When the pis-
‘ones, peat up fors long, bey aftight, Soledad guar Opie G. Miler began
fring without warsing fom the gun cever overlooking the yard Miler was 2
20-year amy Ytern and expert marksman. He shot Nolen fst then Clevebnd
Edwards, wno went to help the injured Nolen, and finally Abin Jog” Babar
‘The three men al of them Black and all of them outspoken militants, were shot
in he chest and let lying in the yard for 20 mnues before being removed
[Alec died chat night Only one ofthe white prisorers involved in dhe fight
‘was injured, hic bya ricochecng ble. Many poner: and subsequent ouside
Sbserver-—indudiga 1975 sry m a wrong death si broaghe bythe ales
‘of the dead—riewed the killings asa set-up.

Black prisoners went “on hunger srk, burning) prison furniture and
lucy + veluinous amoune of mail eshte snd atornays ae to
state offal, demanding an ivesgaion."The prison was in an open sate of
tchelion “Fstighs erupted in namerous hosing wing” journase Man Yee
seported nat ‘ang servant "White and bck cons ake walked around ith
magazine sted in their shirts to bon keife sacks" Thee dis ler, in an
Imerview that prisnen head on dhe «













jy the disrice atorney said thar he
believed that the deaths constituted “justiiable homicide” Some priseners
concluded that the law offered them no recourse

"That night, 26ix-year-old guurd John Mills new merber of the Soledad
staf, was begten and thrown to his death off he third cer ofthe prison’ ¥ wing
Prisoners clearly understood the attack as retaliation for the killing of Nolen,
Mille. and Edwards, Several prisoners initially clapped and cheered, but then.
became stone quiet, fearing what was to come, All prisoners on the wirg of
Soledad were held invomnanicado fer wo weeks Glowing Mill death as
guards repeatedly questioned 138 people. Guneds plied some prisoners with good
food and promises of eatly release in exchange for their testimony. Others were
threatened at gunpoint to cooperate, There wae no independent investig:tion.
save what the prseners’attomeys did subsequent :o che indiztment."

‘These fou killngs—three prisoners and one guard—inaugurited 4 phise of
realiatory violence in California’ prisons. Frustated by the seeming impanity
‘84 Revolution: The Prison Rebellion Years

‘with which guard abused and killed prsoness some prisoners theughtthey would
only maintain their safety if guards feared consequences for their violent action,
‘Between 1970 ané 1971, nine guards and 24 prisoners were killed inside Calforni
prsons 2

‘The investigaton into Millss death quickly focused on George Jackson
‘A 28-year-old prisoner, Jackson had been close to Nolen and had ceveleped 1
reputation for his aggresive protests over ten years in Califenia prisunm, Be had
been convicted of a $70 robbery of a gas station at the age of 13, Canvinced to
plead guile le Ira been given a sentence o one year to lift. Such indeterminate
Sentencing was a hallmark of Califoraa prisons at that rime. te utikeed vague
sertences and allowed the parole board (then callec the Adult Awthoriy) to
determine how long someone needed tw remain in peson.

If indeterminate sentencing was the stck, *bibliothenpy” was the carrot.
Biliotherapy was a philosophy that held literacy could serve rehabilitative
Purposes, California embrared the idea by exablishing. prison litraries anc
‘encouraging prisoner literacy. As part of the state’ rehabilitative effors, the state
ako encouraged people to share ther teeings and offered modest wages to
Prisoners who worked making license plates and furniture or canning vegetblen
This combinition of moderate support amidst severe punishment earned the
Califoria prison syster: praise in che decades after the Second World War Yet the
sysiem was racially segregatec, and people of color were mor likely to be arested
4 javeriles and to serve longer sentences as adults.”

‘Geonze Jackson’ case wonld challenge both aspects ef California’ allegedly lib-
eral brard of punishment. The length of his sentence struck many observers as
hans did his repeated parole denials As he faced the prospect of serving a ie
‘semence Jackson became an obstinate prisoner: he fought with guards and white
Prisoner, increasingly in protest of segregation and racism in prison, He ws part of
4 group of Blick prisoners dewwn to Marxism, Black nationalism, snd self-defense
He participated in study groups and taught prisoners karate. Like Caryl Chestman
sannd Ellridge Cleaver before him, Jackson would turn bibliotherspy on its head.
He read widely, induding a panoply of revolationary literature and then wrote a
beselling book that excoriated the prison system. All these activites made him.
2 thorn in the side of prion ofciab, While some bter accounts cli that Jackson
Privately admitted to killng Mills che investigation. was so sloppy that ene analyae
contended tht Jackson was famed fora crime he actually committed. Without
Dointing to any evidence, the Soledad warden sul hat “no one eke could have
done it!"

1m addition to Jackson, olficials charged two other men with the crime. They
‘ame unier suspicion for thei Afio hairstyles and the Black Power pester they
displayed in ther cells. Twenty-four-ole Johr Chuchette, Fleeta Deum, age 23,
2 woll a Jaclion, were lel in isolation without contact wich the outide world
for another 21 daysafter the rest ofthe prison was taken off lockdown. Cluteherte
hhad been in prison for four years at that point, Dramgo for Sve. Both snen were






Revoution The son Rebelion Years 8S

serving time for burglary and expected co get out soon; Clutchette was just
45 days away fiom parole. Prison authorities never alerted the men’ families of
the charges they faced, and when the mothers of Clutchette and Drumgo called
the prison, officals told chem that they had nothingo worry about and that cei
sons did not need legal representaton.**The three had long recon fille wis
‘minor crimes—fighting, per theft, parole violatioas—that dated back to when
they were 14 and eight respectively. The tio, who barely knew each other, were
formally charge widh dhe murder on Febmaaty 23, 1970, Thice diys Leer,
San Quentin guards beat a mentally unstable Black prisoner, Fred Fllingslea, and
left hima in a tear-ga-illed cell uni he died.”

‘The ewe attracted local media attention 26 well asthe interest ofthe Bay Area
left shanks largely tothe Blick Panthers. Huey Newson, stil in prison, had heard
‘of George Jackson from ether Black priseners impressed with his resistance tothe
ands ard embrace of radical politics. New:on asked Fay Stender, one of his
attomeys. to look into the cau. Stender became jickson's attorney and dubbed
the three defendant the Soledad Deorles. Jackson emerged asthe pivotal Sure
for multiple -easons. Most immediately, che sukes were highest for him.
The Caliornis Penal Code mandated an automatic death sencence for a prisoner
who was convicted of asault while serving a Hie sertence. (It was she sme
provision California officials ased againse Robert Wells in tne 1940s.) Because
jackson’ open-ended sentence ine:uded the possibilty of if in prison, he now
faced death, lckson was charming, erudite, and wellspoken, waich surprised
many in the fice world, A veteran of the system with the elequerce ta describe
the injustices vo which he had been subjected, ackson readily became 2 spokesman
of the prison movement”

In addition to representing Jackson in court, Stender cofounded the Soledad
Rrother: Defense Commietee with support from Blick elected officals and
professionals alongside prominent activists, artist, anc others. The commtee
Consistently figyed te vuladle sacinm inside Calforeia prsons.® Chapters of
the defense committee sprung up throughout California, offen connected
either to the BPP or the Communist Party. In Los Angeles, an all-Black cell of
the CPUSA took ap the cate. One of the grewp's members, Argela Y. Davis
became a leading spokeswoman for the carupaign—until she herself became a
pritoner,

Davis was a promising young philosophy professor who first came to pub-
lic attention in 1969 when governor Rorald Reagan led the University of
California Beard of Regents in fring ier ffom UCLA after an FBI informant
revealed her membership in the CPUSA. In the winter of 1970, Davis pu
cchised several gurs for self-defense amidst » barrage of death threats. She aso
became one ofthe leading members af the Soledad Brothers Defense Committee
and quickly grew :lose with both George Jackson an¢ his family. As Davis and
Jackson fell n love, his younger brother, 17-year-old Jonathan, became let
bodyguard.”












'85_ Revolution: The Prion Rebeliox Yous

His bodyguand duties ended suddenly, however, attr Jonathan Jackson staged
shocking attack on 1 Bay area courthouse. On August 7, 1970, twa days after
‘Black Panther leider Huey Newton was released fiom prison, the 17-year-old
high school smident took cver tie Marin County Courthouse during # tral of
San Quentin prisoner James McClin, Accused of having attacked 2 prisen
_ssard, McClain was serving as his own attomey when Jackon -nterrupted
“All right, gentlemen, I'm taking over.” Jackson said as he tomoved a gus fom
[ns coat. He then distributed guns to McClain and twe prisoners who were
there to testify as witneses in Ins case, Willam Christmas and Ructell Mages
Tae group then took the judge, District Attorney, and severs! jumes hostage
Jorkson wanted to use them as bargaining chips to fee his brother. Sin Quentin
szuards, who had heen called in to help, opsned fire on the group as they began
to drive away in the van Jackson had driven ther. Jackson, Christmas, McClain,
smd Jucge Harold Haley were all killed. The District Attorney and Magee were
bth wounded,

Mary racicals viewed the young Jackson as 2 hero, More than 3,000 people
attended his faneral, during which Newton praised Jackson as hit would-be
suseessor as BPP leader. Other BPP members read eulogies from men inside
{alloria prisons. Callng Jackson’ action avery very important thing” Chicago
Eight defendant Thm Hayden said it “changes the entire selaionship berween the
courts and political prionen, between the eppresors and oppresed people" Ina
leucr dived “August 9, 1970, Keal Date, 2 cays A.D,” George Jackson wrose that
“society would hive to reckon alltime in che fire from the day of the man-
childs death” Six prisoners charged with a riot in Auburn, New York, declared
Jonathan Jackson their role model. “Right on to the baddest mothafucker that
«ver lived and died!” they wrote, saying that his atack was part ef the “specter of
complere freedom [thal] is haunting Racist Babyion.™”

‘Two months aier Jonathan wat Killed, Bantam Books published Salad Brother:
The Pron Leters of George Jckion. Supporters marked the book’ release with 1
party atthe gates of San Quentin, The book gathered six years of letters Jackson
hhad written to his family I also included some letters written to Stender and
some other female supporters, including Davis. The book, which soon became 2
bestseller, wat Stender’ idea. She had learned fivin Charles Garry tha: the secret
to successil defense cempaigns was public atertion. Her colleague and iellow
attorney Beverly Axelrod, had played a simile role in arranging Ekiridge Cleaver
book of essrs two years earlier Taken with Jackson’ writing herself, Sender
beieved his voice would corvince people of his innocence,

‘Soledad Bose appeared -n the fall of 1970, with in effusive foreword from
French playwright Jean Geret. A former prisoner himself, Geret hd been an
ouspoken supporter of the Black Panthers and had solicited other French intel.
lecatls 19 wnpport Black prisoner in the United Sats. Jackson’ writing woul
prove a oundational, if unacknowledged, influence upon French theorist Miche’
Foucauls seminal history of prisons, Displive and Punish."


Revobition:The ison Rebelion Years. 87

Jacksons voice wat bok original and steepedin a Black literary tration of is
person festimonials against racism. He recounted his personal mgimen of exercise
and education amidt constant peril Bckaon wrote af beceming 2 prkon gaan:

“There areno qualifications asked, no experience necesary ... Any fool who
fallsin hete and can sign his tame might shoot me romorrow from a posi-
tion 30 feet akove my head with an automatic miltary ile! He could be
dead drunk... bu



re protected sell He won't even miss a day’ wages

[Uhimately Jackson saggested that prisons were at a ipping point of revolationary
vepheaval

‘There are stillsome Blacks here who consider themselves c-iminals—bue
nor many. Bekeve me, ny friend, with the time and incentive that these
brochers have to read, suidy, and think, you will fnd no clas or category
more aware, more embiucred, despetate, or dedicated 0 the wlkimate
remredy-—revelution, The most dedicated, the best of our kind—you'll ind
then in the Folsoms, Saa Quentin, and Soledads. They live like there was
no tomorrow: And for mast af them there in



‘The book closed with a love leter to his brother, the “Black ri
the raid in Marin.”

“The book’ sucoes sparked a rensissance in prison liteiure. The next Few years
witnessed an explosion of prisencr memoirs journalstic exposes, and other symp-
thete writings from or about prisoners. Almostal ofthe bookstha sppeared at this
‘ime were writen by men, more a reflection of the popular asocistion of prison
‘with men than an indication that incarcerated women were silent about their
conditiors. These writings cas the authors a8 sympathetic, deserving figures. Their
wring critiqued the tacias and economic deprivaon that sent people 1 prion,
reveiled the extent of vio enceinside of prison, and demonstrated thit incarceration
did not dsquahfy someone from being an aris, activist, or intellectual.”

“ckson, however, wa less interested i acclaim asa writer than in his role as
“Field Marshal" ofthe Black Panther Party, ed with recruiting other prisoners
to join the party, ‘The held Marstal rank wes a miliary one, Its bestowal upon
Jackson honored his commitment to armed conflict as anecesary mears of social
change. In this way.Jackson developed many of che ideas popularized by psychol-
‘git and revohatiorary Teante Pancn, who argued that violence was both cathartic
and necessary for overturning colonials,

‘While mary prisoners supported retaiatory violence Jackson linked shis desire
swith plans fora larger people’ war for eeialm. Though the Field Marshal title
‘was more symbolic than practical, ickson did recrit several men to join the BPP
and contributed several iricles to the Blac Panther newspaper. Hie abo aid yas
formilitary atacks agaist US. authority After his brother’ death, he cofounded

hil!” wlio led




'88 Revolution: The Prison Reblion Years

* group cafed the Black Guerrilla Famuly (BGF). The group began with a
Peliticized mission of revolitiorary Black nationalism: it adwoeated retaliatory
violence against guards. Like other unsanctioned prisoner organizations, the BOE
ako paticipoted inthe underground cconomy of prison

‘George and Jonathan Jackson toth symbalized the growing intnsity of activa
fimide prisons and jas, At the same time as Jonathan Jackson attempted his i- te
asault on a Marin courthouse. rebels heaght the New York City ail ystem to a
ining halt The city’s al tem had been overcrowded fr several yet, kang
te abysmal conditions for beth thse incarcented there swaiting tral and for guards
‘who worked there, Asa resu, half of the people entering the jail hid to wait a lent
a woek to geta blanket or sometimes even a mattres to sleep on, Rats, roaches, and
bovy ie filet she ais, while soap wa in short supply. Menbers of xe Bick Prnther
Party, including membes of the Panther 21 ease, and the Young Lords held political
‘education clases diy Jus tend to have a fst turnaround, as people stand til and
either set released or sent on to a prison. Bt the system was 2o overcrowded Una
people were held in jail tor long peciods of time, They hid more time to organize.

‘The rebeliou beyan at the Manhattan House of Detention. Becaise of the
architecural style of prior borough jal and presumably becanse ots bleak condi
‘ions, the jail was known as “The Toms.” In what had become a farsi pattern,
Brionen presed thee grievances with official but heard no response. On August
10,several prisoners at tie Tombs rook five guards hostge. They demanded to see
‘media and the mayor. the New Yok Tines printed their demands, and the uprising
continued throughout the month. Prisoners hmke windows and sene notes et on
the city streets below. Seme even boycotted their court hearings in protest. One 0°
the key grievances was how long Black and Puerte Rican poor people spentin jail
‘suating trial as a result of exorbitant bail fes and an overcrowded system. tn =
decisive if short-lived, victory, officals held bail reduction he:rings is
a result ofthe rebellion.

Officials abo tried to stifle the rebelion by transferring some men to different
Jail. Yet it had che opposite efec: the uprising spread to five other fclities 1erow
the city throughout the fll This turn of events was 2 miencosm of the prison
rebellion years writlarge, where punitive traners often served to spread rather than
contain discontent.In another sgn ofthe larger zeigesthe citywide ja rebellione
ere multiradal afhirs grounded in the radicalism of the BEP and YLR Prisoners
developed a handwritten newaletter to share word of the revolt; lckiag even so
much asa typewriter, nen took turns copying the items by hand to situate around
the jail. They also attempred to involve the puble as muck as posible, hanging
bbanneis ouuie their windows or dropping notes onto the ciy streets, Meanwhile
four prisoner filed a federal clas action suit against the city, alleging that the
condition viclted their Firs, Sinth, Eighth, and Fourteenth Amendment rights!”

The immediate response tothe rebelion was repression: city ofc placed all
the jas on lockdown, reduced food pertions, denied showers and visis, and cut
‘off acces to the commisary, In the next thres yeas, however, city officals placed



the jail x


Revolution The Prison Rebetion Years. 89

4 limit on pretr.al detention and improved aspects othe ahysical conditions. The
rebelion had lef an impression, The YLP incorporated prison issues into cheir
“otherwise urban-based organising, expecially after one of their members, Julio
Roléin, was found dead in the Tombs. His denth was ruled a suicide, waich the
Lords disputed—especiall a there was a ash of suspicious suicides inside thea
(On October 18, 1979,the group took over the First Methodist Church of Harlem
and demanded it be surned int a Tegal center and that clergy investigate the local
prison system. Oxher Puctiy Ritats agiced. © local television reporte: named
Geraldo Rivers published a letter in the New Yok Tines aier the mayor had
appointed him to a civilian review board of the jails Rivera decried the “Bastille-
like conditions" in which the sity’ jail popultian, 90 pervent of them Black or
Puerto Rican, lived “[Alfer spending dour after hou: inside the Tombs and
speaking with huncreds of inmates, I've come to the soncsion that perhaps
there is only one meaningful form: Let them out.”
‘Women’s jals also became a site of frotest, in concert with the burgeoning
‘women’s movement. New Yoru City Feminists took interest in che jl setting wp
“ yomen’s bal fad” to help free women who couldn't sffordbail while awaiting
trial on minor charges. Ter efforts merged with supporters ofthe Black Panther
arey and others, Activites staged a weeklong demorstration outside the Women's
House of Detention in lover Manhattan from Christmastime 1969 unsil
New Years Day of 19/0, The demenstration was i solicarity wich two members
of tie New York BPP chapter, Joan Bird and Aféni Shakus, the only women
defendanss in the Panther 2: ease. Activist continued to protest atthe jal
‘The group Youth Against War and Fazcim beld an International Women's Day
protest at the jail on March 8, During a rally of teveral hundred people, afew
Activists broke windows ofthe jal and even rushed the doors to get inside, Police
arresed <x people in the melee, with Bird watching she entire protes: from inside.
Activists returned co the jal yee again that fll ater Angela Davis was arrested.
Fearing for he: safety, Dvis lad youe undesgiound after Jonathan Jacksen's death
She was placed on the FBI's Ten Most Wanted List before being caught by police
‘in New York City that October. She was held 2 the Women’s House of Detention
for swo months while her attorneys resisted California's attempt to extracite her 0
stand trial for ackscn’ id, If convicted, she ficed the death penalty The CPUSA,
4 veteran of 0 many defense campaigns, quickly mobilized co defend Davis.
‘Activists picketed outsice the jail, demanding her release. Davis, whe received
tremendous support fiom the other women she vas incarcesated with, usec the
‘occasion w advance « lager shalleage t0 imprisonment, During a December 21,
1970, protest, worsen on the floor on which Davis vas held chanted poltial
slogans while a large demonsuation in support of Davis gathered outs the ail
[As he crowed outside the jail shanted “Pree Angela." Davis responded by shouting
the names of other women on the floor with her:*Free Vernel! Free Helen! Free
‘Amy! Free Jounn! tree Laura! Free Minaie!” The spirited protests sustained Davis
and fostered the already strong soidarty berweer. her and some of the women
















‘90 Revolution: The Prison Rebellion Years

inside, Seemingly scared by the public atention Davis had generated, oficials
stansterted her (0 California on 23 a.m plane days before Christmas.

Davis arrived back in Californiaas prsoners there andin New York hat launched
4 new sffort in their attempt te challenge theie conditions: unions. Prisoners
Unoughoue the country had toyed with the idea 0° urion, specily a rebellions
ofien took the form of'trike, In 1970, Black prisoners at Aubura staged a work
serke they called Black Solidarity Day, while a multiracial group of men incarcer-
ated at Attica held a major erike demanding wages and better working conditions
[Atte time, Attica priscners earned berween six and 26 cent a day, yet their labor
‘muking cabinets and lockers neted over $1 milion forthe state of New York”

‘A stike at Fobom prison in the end of 1970 accelerated these effors, On
November 3, more char: 2,000 pritoners refused ro work or lave their cls. Guards

xl forced them to sand naked ouside. The sike ksted for 19
slays. They released an extensive document, which they dtled a “Manito of
Demands and Ans-Oppresion Phorm” The documenr originates at Sn Quentin,
where 4 group led by Black aationaias had heen working on a campaign co unite
prisoners actoss racial ines to fghe against tke insirution. Ajer an uprsing weeks
ceatuer at San Quentin, some of tae men were cansferred & Foliom, where they
soon tapped into similar organizing thct had beer taking plce there. The Folsom
‘manifesto, as it was called, Isted 29 demands thar would prove influential ro the
prison movement over the #oxt decade. The demands included isues relaing to
inkividaalliberses (acces to adecuate legal representation, medical car, an¢ read
‘ng maveral,polical reform (fur parle poicies.an end to the rampant and racist
hse of prioner, and payment and union representation for prsoner liber, th
right e9 organize, freedom for politcal prisoners, and prisoner" ability to offer
financial suppore other faily metiLers us de ouside

In lite November, 2 small group of attorneys and forme prisoners supporting
the strike lainched the United Prisoners Union (UPU). The UPU proclaimed
that prisoners were part of a “convicted clas” who needed a unior to bargain
collecevely for their interezs. The union campaigns quickly spread around the
county. Wiehin two years, there were efforts to build prsoner laber unvons at
riore than 30 prisons in nine sates. The spread of the effort owed in part ©
“The Outlaw.the UPU newspapernamed after the clandestine broadshect produced
a1 San Quentin that helped ongasize the strike therein 1968,

[Union activists shared trany of the same aims as ozher prison rebellion atthe
‘ioe: multiracial anitya right to onganize, egal and medical cae, and an end toa
hose of erueliescharacteriring everychy life in prison. To this they added astrorg
‘lass-lused framework, including an emphasis on wages ard working conditiors
Cahforma unionssts suffered some bitter organizational splits, a few of which
turnec violent, Ye, similar unionizaton drives took place in prisors across the
county, until a 1977 Supreme Court ruling declared that insieutienal sccurisy
‘camped the First Amendment rght of prizones: to freely associate, erganize, and
rise demards about fir living and working conditions."



bea dhe prisoners






Revoution: The Prison Rebelion Years 91

1971: Rebellion and Revenge

‘The prison rebellion years included hath organizing inside of prison aul defense
«ampsigns to keep people out of pron. The elfort o fre: Angela Davis was er.
tsinly the Biggs slefnne campaign ofthe time, While supporters cilled to "ee
Angela Davis and all politcal prisoners” the emphasis remained squarely en Dave
Her case united the international Commanist movemene with the globl Blick
Power movement in says few ethers did or could. Defeme commities for Devie
‘Prouted up around the country a5 “Free Ange” demonstrations cauld be Found
5 faraway as Kasia, Germany, France, India, Greece, and mary other countries,
Many prominen: artes surported her freedom, Actor Ouse Dai led les Defense
Fand,Aretha Franklin was one of many celebrities to donate money, anc peosle
such Nina Simone and James Baldwin visited erin jl.*=

‘While no one garnered the level of support Dass di, activists continued to
rnobilize on betalf o” chore facing represion, That August, 11 menber of the
Republic of New Afika, including wfounder Imari Obadele, were arated in
nids cn two houses i Misisippi. Convicted of various offenses.the RNA mem.
ters organied inside of federal prisons forthe rest ofthe decal. The same vos
true for incarcerated members of the Black Panther Tar liv Maryland, for
instance, a Blick Panther named Marshall Ecdie Convay formed » prisoner
union. started « newpaper, and held poltucal education clases tht ultimately
roduced a ongoing collective inside ”®

Jn Louisiana prisoners formed a chapter ofthe BPP to counter rics trutalty
and the comtimtion ofa davery style model of privner labor. Albert Woodtng
and Herman Walace met members of the New Orleans BPP when the Panthers
vere Incarcrated while sunding tral for a siootout with police, While the
Fanthers were acquitied, Woodfox and Wallace were cent t9 Angols. On the
sounds of a former slave platation—and named afer the county in Aten
where many of the enslaed people originated—Angola-was the most feared
Frison in the sae. The mastly Black priscn population was forced to eu sirr=
cane under a punishing work regime that wed dsciplinary report to compel men
{© work as much ac even days a wack. Wallece organized uiher prisoners to
‘conduct 2 work slowdown, He and Woodfox met in the prison yard to pln hew
‘s Gtr collectivity among the isolated prison population. They sent a letter to
the BPP in Oakland seeking permission to open » chapter inside ef prion, By
1972, it was grated. Their plan was to educate prisoners end rape of prisoners,
and improve other spect of thet condizons, However, Wallce, Woodfin, and
another Black Panther named Robert King were falsely accused in the mnfer nf
correctional oficer and thrown in solitary confinement for the next 40 years*

‘The mos significant aspect of prisener organizing in 1971 ws the increasingly
riliant tenor of uprisings. Some of the frst rebellions ofthe year hegan in the
ses here 1,200 prisoners a Florida State Prison launched a aunget str ke and
96 prisoners in Gzorgit's Chatham County Prison held a ewondzy st down strike








192. Revolution: The Prison Rebellion Years

‘Hewever, national atention once again focused on a linked series of rebellions in
CCalitornia are New York that would shape the prison movement—ad prison
rmanagement—for years to come.®

‘On Augus 21, George Jackson was Lilled during 2 okeover ofthe Adjusment
Center st San Quentin, The citcumetances af his death remain mysterious even
decades later. Authoritis allege that an attomey dipped Jackson « pistol during a
legal visit, which he then hid ina wig ané walked back foward his cell olock
hetnre king gnats hostage. Critics contend that Jackson oversowered euards
‘who «ried (kill him and unleashed 2 bloody fury before they succeeded in
shooting him dae, Enough evidence exists 10 disgrove both stories. Government
sources changed theit story about the size of pistol Jackson carried several simes,
and subsequent attempts to reproduce the lengthy walk Jackson was alleged to
Ihave taken with a gun tucksd in a wig demonztnted the improbability of doing
s0 without immediate detection, The attorney who vsited Jackson iimeciately
beforchand was cleared of al wrongding. Yet, no one has been able to demon:
smably prove cha acksan wae er up.

Reyandles, somehow Jackson endee up with agun in what was supposed to be
the ouzhest most secure pate of fe prson. He chen fered te years open dhe
cells inside the Adjustment Center freemg the 26 other men in the unit, Using the
‘gon and homemade knives, Jackson and unnamed otters killed chree guards and
two prsone:s who were diliked by she other nen in the Adjisemene Cente-
Jackson ther ran out into the yard, which bis friends ter ssid vas to spare them
the incoming attack. Guards shot and kiled Jackson an the San Quentin yard. With
Jackson: deac, guansfo-ced the remaining prisones to strip. The men were beaten
‘ard held incommasnicado fer days while authories investigated the situation

‘While te investigation proteeded,many celebrated Jackson as 8 martyr Like
they did for his brother’ funeral year earlier, mourners praised Jackson as hero

"To us George Was fie that never went out,” declared Father Earl Neil, arever~
fend wio workec clawly with the BPP. Members of the BPP. dresed in their
signature leather jackets and black berets, served as pallbearers, while the funeral
program listed as honorary palltearers “all he revolutionary brotle> in pris
camps acros America” Georgia Jackson, who had lost both of her sors in a
2-month period, called for a UN investigation. The 26 other men in the
Adjusencnt Center signed sn affidavit deeaing tne beatings they received and che
‘constant threats they faced since Jackson’ death, In resporse, authorities granted
two delegations of journalists, politicians, and protesionas to tour the pnson.
‘They Sound evishnce af abase bat dignuted the prisoner caims of “torcure”™*

Jackson eft bshiné a powerfl literary legacy. Authorities confiscated neary
100 books from his cel, including books by Arisode,Plawand Niewsche,Albert
Camas, Jean-Paul Sarte, and Karl Marx; WE.B. Du Bois June Jerdan,and Martin
Luther King. Tae reading list was part of a collective study group Jackscn
organized in the Adjustment Center, which informed his posthumously published
book, Blood in my Eye was completed days before he was killed and published








Revolution: The Prison Reblion ears. 93

‘months afterward. Ina foreword, the book’s editor repeated prisorer chims that
Jackson Ina run onto the yard asa sacriice to protec the other men in the unit
from being killed by guanis. The book presented itelf at 2 manual oF urban gue
rill warfare. The raw corfessionals of Soedad Brother were replace with a eal to
arms against what he sew as dhe inipient fascism of an ever-expanding criminal
Justioe system, Jackson saw the rising power ofthe police and the tight camtrak of
Prison assigns of incipient fisesm.*

Prisoners around the country markeé Jackion's death. The most snicant
memorial happened acros the country. In Atica, a medieval-looking prsor in
‘westest New York, prisoners had already Been organizing to better ther conditions
Sever veterans of the 1970 New York City jail uprising: a year eatlcr had been
‘ent t Atica and they continted to pres: grievances aguinst ‘he administration,
Prisoners sent several leurs to the Department of Corrections protesing the
brutal conditions to which they were subject A group calling inelf He Avia
Liberation Front, whose members included Herbert X. Blyden, a leader of the
‘omits rebllian, sent the most damning lever that July

‘We, the inmates of Attica Prison, have grown to recognize ...that beeasse
‘of our posture as prisoners and brardled characters as alleged crininal, che
administration and prison employes no longer consider of respect us a3,
Jnuman beings but sather as domesticated animals selected to do their
bidding i. slave labor and furnished as a personal whipping dog. for their
sauisic poychopathic hate,

‘Their 28 demands included religious fresdom for Muslims, neaningfil parole
‘efornn, and an end to the abusive working and living conditions at the over,
‘crowded prison.

Bur officials tonewalled them. Afer Jackson's death, more than 700 prisoners
held a clene fast Three weeks later, the situation exploded. On September 5,1
ght between a prisoner and a guard exploded into a full-blown uprising, More
‘han a thotsand prisoners ook over one yard at the prison, holding 32 guards a5.
hostage. While the events were initially chaotic, the sexconed organizen inside
‘quickly imposed political cisciptine and lozic to the event. They gathered every~
‘ens inan open space—the prisons D yard—n oxderto maximize collectivity and
protect individuals. Members of the Nation of Islam. regimented and restrained,
Froteced the hostages. Nex, the organizers calibrated a list of demands, building
on the ones developed by the Atsca Liberation Front as well 2 the Folkers
Prisoners Manifisto. They requested 1 negotiation commicte that included poli
‘Selans, journals, lawyers, and represent:tives of the BPP, the YLP, and otter
‘xganizations that worked with currently and formerly incarcerated. people
throughout the sate. As importantly, they asked for television cameras to record
their discusions with prison officals in the yare,so that the werld could learn of
conditions inside.
(94 Revolution: The Prior Rebalion Years

‘The rebelion was certainly educational. The Atica Brothers, ss they came to
be called, combined practical demands for prison veform with far-reaching proc
lamations of radical change. Officials cerided the latter, including the prisoners
demand for amnexy fiom reprisal forthe retellion andspeedy and safe transpor-
tation out of confinement, 6 a non-imperislstie caurery"The prisoners drafted
4 manifesto, passcnatey read on camera by 2 21-year-old prisoner named L.D.
Barkley that procliimed events at Atca a a warning sgn of the abuse tha facec
the country 1s whole

‘We ate ment We are not beats antl we do not intend to be beate» or driven
as such. The entite prison populice—that mears each and every one of us
hhere—has set forth to change forever the ruthless brutalization and disre-
sped forthe live: of the presoness hore and throughout che Uiited Srtes
‘What has happened here is bur the sound before the fury ofthese who are
‘oppressed. We will noc compromise on any terms except those terms that
ane agweahle ro as. We eall upon al she conscientious citizens of Americs
‘fo assists in pursing an end to this situation tha chreatens the lives of not
cnly es bur of each and every one of.”

‘Soon, the prison yard esercbled something of a commune. The Black-led, mul
‘iraial group that emenged as leaders there worked to.encame thatthe racicn thet
hormally governed life at Awica did not shape the uprising. As negotiations raged,
prisoners provided food and gereral safety for themselves, the hostages, and che
‘observation eam. Tom Wicker, the esteemed Nav York Tims journalist and mem=
ber of the negotiating team, was impressed: “The racial harmoay that prevailed
among the prinwusis ie was abrolutcly astonishing ...That prison yand was the
fis plice [have ever en where there was no racism."

“The prisoners and che odservation team, which had come up with its own set
of proposik, senured commitirents from the Department of Corrections 10
reform: several issues. Yet a8 negotiations dragyed on, the ste refused 0 agree thit
tere would be no reprisls for parccipating





Ue uprising. Knowing how
‘severely even minor dscretons could be punished, prisoners viewed ihis demard
a essential. Nevertheless, New York officials were in-ransigent. Hoping to bredk
the impasse, che observation team implored Governor Nelion Rockeitllerto vist
“Attica to meet with them and the prisoners. Buche refused, After Wiliam Quinn,
the guard injured during the inisial fight chat precipitated the rebellion died,
Rockefiller opted to snd the rexellian by force

(Or September 13, Rockefeller called inthe Ste Troopers. Angered a thescae of
‘is unprecedented four-day upring, worn officers brouylt ches persenal shorguns
tb retike the prion. Hoping to foresall a milizry asault, prisoners brougat their
hostages to the cawalk with homemade knives attheir throas. Bur it was 1 no avi
Helicopters dropped tsar gis over che yard ar teopers Bred inte the emwvd forte
minut. Some topers used balls that were oudawed by the Geneva Convention


Revolition: The son Rebelion Years. 95:

‘When they finshed, 39 people ly dead, 29 prisoners ad ten guards. (The tral
‘eat coll a Atica was 43, inctading Quinn and three prisoners lilled secretly
during the rebellion by a small group 0” ather prisoners acting on their wan
secon.) Police offic saidintally thatthe guards were cstated an killed by
Prisoners even dlaming to have witnessed such carnage themselves But autopsies
revealed tht Stte Topers had killed all 39 men. Troopers. it & now known,
llled some in targeted asasinitions Barkley, one of the mose visible lenders o¢
the rebellion, ws shot in the back at cloe distance. He had been incarcensted ‘or
forging 2 $124 check and sent to Artca becatse, asthe state prisorer commin
‘soner later put i, "he wat adjudged to be an instant militant” Sam Melville 2
white revolutionary imprisoned for atempting to bomb an einpty nilicry
‘eeruitmen: office, wa shot a case range with his hands up. Yet officials did rot
‘scp tack of who fred what guns and desuoyed othe evidence, making it ificat
te hold anyone accountable for she deaths. It did not matte: R ackelllerquichly
signaled he only intenled to presecute the prisoners*™

Onre guards had weaken the prison, they Iumiiaed the dissidents They mate
Prisoners strip naked and craw through the mud. Prisoners then had to tun
‘hrough a gnuntle of police who asaulted them with gun buts, batons ard racist
epithe’. A ew ofthe known leaders ofthe rebellion were burat with li cigars,
beat upon the genital, and threatened with castration and murder Suck physi
<all.ssally and sally vnlentretribution mirrored what guards at San Quentin
Jd done afer Jacksons death but ona prander scale. In both rats guands mocked
and beat the prisoners “George Jackson's body is rotting in the grave the revoli-
tionary soeiers are rotting in their cell” Sats Quentin guards ang. AU Attica
underneath graff a grisoner had writen during the rebellion, a guird scrawled
“31 Dead Nigger

Both uprisings produced intense legal challenges In San Quentin, six of the
26 men on the Adjustment Center were charged with the othe five killings tht
‘eccurred the day Jaclaon died. Kinown as che San Quentn Siz, the mer=—fonr
Back and two Latino—were all fiends with Jaccson if not witk each other. The
ese would drag on fer anche five years, At Atica, 62 ofthe participans were
indicted in 1972 and charged with more than 1,200 felonies, They became known
asthe “Attica Brothers In both cases, te prisoners faced lif sentences if convicted,
‘Aud in both cases, powerfil defense committee: mobilized not only to fe the
accused but to change the prison sysem. The San Quentin Soc and the Auiea
Brothers each sued the sate is aresult of thee contitions the Aca civ suit would
ot be resoled for another tw decades

In both cases, state violence sparked national conversation about the Renae of
American prisons. Commentators acoss the politcal spectrum weighed in: to
decry the racism of prisons and the deproportionate violence ofthe sate of to
bemoan the breakdown of order exemplified by incorrigible prisoner, While the
‘onseiative positon would win out in the policy realm, at the tine, radical
‘ertiques seemed to hold as much tactioa. On the most exeme end, some




96. Revolution The Piso1 Rebalion Years

people retalited for the deaths at San Quentin and Attica by atucking the
igovernnient, he Weather Underground Organization (WUO), danwlestine
amsracitt offshoot of the Students for a Democrate Society,bomibed Department
fof Corrections offces in Calfornia anc in New York, while members of the BPF
splinter group the Black Liberation Army (BLA) attacked a police station in Sar
Francisco. All ree were in response tothe deaths of George Jaccson or Atica®®

‘The state violence in California and New Yerk sparked renewed frustration
‘with the limes of prison reform. A host of scademics. clergy. poltcias, journal-
iso, judges, and others seemed convinced that American prisons were a flue
Kamsey Clark, the attorney general under LynJon Johnson, penned a critical
bbcok aout the American criminal justice system prior te Attica; afierward, he
suggested the country “abandon prisons entirely” A judge inspecting the Nevada
Sue P-son said in 1971 tht the state should “sond evo balldocers cut thereto
tear the darn thing to the grocnd” A year later, a federel judge in Wisconsin
described prisonsas being “intolerable within the United Stites as was the mstcu-
sion af livery qlly bratazing co allinvolved. equally coxic to the secial system,
equally subversive ofthe brotherhood of man, cien more zostly by some sand
ards, and probably less rational" The Priests Senate of dhe Aruixlucese of Boston
firmed that “prisons as currently conceived and administered should. be
abolished.” Viembers of the American Friends Service Committee wrote aa
inflacial book that advocated for a “prisoner bill of right” and the pursuit of
ralically cransformed criminal justice system. One of their proposal, cevaral 0
the rebels at Attica, was tha prisoners participate in shaping any eforr» inidaties
ven some criminologists thought that it might be time to plan for “the decline
and likely fll of the ‘prison’ a that term is now understood.” The National
‘Council on Crime and Deknjuctty talled for shale vo now prison construction
in 1972

Some people argued forthe abolition of prisons entirely. Abolitionsts viewed
reform: a5 un extension of the pmblem. "The prison reformer—wittingly oF
‘unwittingly—is an agent of capitalism, a used-car salesman,” wroie Samuel Jordan,
then incarcerated in Pennsylvania, The aboliioris ire for prison reform owed
the severity of violence that activise prisoners faced. Afterall the thinking went,
George Jackson was a procuct ofthe allegedly reformist vision of bibliotherapy
and look waat happened to him? Aboliionists therefore challenged the prevailing
logic of American punishment.""Rehabiltation’ is the picifiction program of
iberalismn."the Feminist journal pf ourbacks claimed in 1971 ardcle. Rehababtation
‘would nat end poverty 0° racism, and “revolutionaries like Angel Davis and
George Jacsson" should not be subject to such treatment “We need t0 rd our
selves of prisons, the journal declared. The New England Prisons Ascciation|
(NEPA) agreed, declaring ts desie to “abolish prisons as they exist and are used
today” and replace them with “sn alternative chat will work.”

‘Once again, i: was other prisoner who displayed she songs response. From
‘Maine to Texas, Washington to Virginia and so many places in between, people in










Revolutior: The Prison Rebelion Years 97

sails and prisons held solidarity strikes to mourn the events at San Quentin and
Awica. These strikes often combined conceras about immediate condition: of
confinement with larger critiques of racism and oppression. ‘The rebelivis in
federl prison were especially fr-reaching, At the federal prisen in Leavenworth,
Kans, coalition of Dlack, Chicano, indigenous, and Puerto Rican prisorers
‘wore black armbands and went on strike a: the prison factories. Renwwen the clon
ing of Aletraz in 1953 ard the opening of the Marion Contol Units in 1972,
Leavenworth wis the most restrictive prion i the federal system, The “end of
the line” of the federal prison system, Leavenworth concentrated a number of
rebellious prsorers in one place

One of the prisoners there wae 2 man named Pasi Sins, A Chicano from
‘Texas, Salinas landed in Leavenworth afer his third arrest for selling marijuana
1m his earlier stias in prison, both in Cahfornia and in Texas, Salinas became
‘writer, poet,and friend to the activist prisoners He wrote forthe prisoner news
oper at Hontsille, Texas, writing sbout everything fiom jacz to drug poly.
[At Lervenuorth, Salinas wat mentored by politcal orsonets—including Nate
Amercan activist Standing Deer (also known as Robert Wikon) and Puerto
[Rican independence sctvsts Oscar Collazo and Rafael Cancel Mirznda,Collizo,
fad shot at President Truman in 1950 in protest of the represion of an isla
‘prising against US, contol of Pue-to Rico. Canes! Mirands was one of feur
People who shot inside the Moor ofthe US, Congres in 1954 to call attention to
Puerto Rico’ ongoing colonial stat

(Often reared in school systems that penalized speaking Spanish, the Latiros
incarcerated at Isaverworth took pride in theirheritage, They formed a newspa,
per, Asti to publi poerry, art, and essays reiting to diverse Latino identities,
ulears and politics. Collazo tavght Spanish tothe Latino prisoners using phrases
fiom revolutionaries such as Che Guevara ar Pedro Albiow Campos. These
Frisoners joined other in studying th: history of American racim, both in Formal
clases and informal study groups. When officials trarsferred several of the
Participants to a new experimental prison in Marion, llinis, in 1972, they
continued their effort there.°*

A stunning, if underreported, uprising took place at the wonen' prison in
Alderson, Wiest Virginia. The women, who worked fr sever censs an hour making,
‘nifosn for men’s priors, began a weekleng protest the day afer Sute Toopers
ended the Attica rebellion. They came up with a lat af 42 demands, covering
issues sich a parle reform medical cre and beter working conditions (inching
Irgher wage). Police, ineluding guanl from a neatby men’s prisoa, ulemately
broke up ther strike and shipped 66 women to a different prison. Shertly thereaf-
‘er,around 150 feminists gathered outide the prison in protest at thie retaliation”

‘As with most rebelions in woment prisons, te ore at AMdetaoi received seant
atention outside the feminist press. The concerns of women in prison were
Sequently mentioned but rately priortized within much ofthe frison! movement
‘Women’ prisons rarely exoerieaced the kind of dramatic, hloady rebellions of








198 Revolution: The Prison Rebellion Years

the likes of Aica or San Quentin, However, it would be a mistake to see women
as somehow less rebellious, Incarcerated wornen Ged sone different circum
stances than men that famed their organizing seategies. They were more likely
then male prisoners to face rape or sexual abuse fiom guards and they were more
likely ce romain ir close cortact sith their children on the outside, They were
ako more likely «@ be the primary caregivers prior to their arrest. Women's
prsons ako regulated the appearance of their inmates more than men’s prisons
Regulations often specified whar types of shoes, socks, pants, wearers, shirts,
underwear, and makeuf chat women could wear and in which par ofthe prison,
Women’ prison resisunce therefore enphasizel « high-degiee of emotional
support and collectivity Stopping sexuil violence was as high a priority as any-
thing eke, The violation of forced cavity searches catalyzed a strke by prisoner:
at California Insti Jor Women, Andracie feminists opposed prisnns on the
ground: that chey exposed women, many of them already survivors of domestic
forsexual assault co further male violerce atthe Fands of the stat.””



1972: Struggles Old and New

Beck in Californi, Angela Davis continued to fight for her if. By 1972,her case
hhad been severec’ from her codefendant, Ruchell Mages, the one surviving
participant in Jonathan Jackson's sad cn the Maria courthouse two years ealier
Altiouzh kept mostly in salitary coafinement, Davis had been productive in
prison, With fellow CPUSA memoer Betana Aptheker, Davis coedited an anthology
‘of prisoner writings. The book, if They Corte in the Morning, took is tice fom 2
stunning open lever author James Balewin wrote to Davis upon her arrest. “If we
know, dent ve not Gilt fan your ie as though i were our owa which iis
ard rerder impassable with our bodies the corridor to the gas chamber," Baldwin
wrote, “For, if they take yeu in the morning, they will be coming for us that
night "!'The hale contained a series of sys by and abou: US. political prison
‘ems at the time, including several contributons from Davis herself. More than a
situs feport on prison conditions, many of the essays followed the spirie of
Baldwin’ leiter: what happened t prisoners and the urban communities many of
tem came irom them would soon happen to American society in general
‘The eria) again





‘Angels Davis opened the same wed the two remaining
Soledad Brcthers were aeqtitted Davs herself proved vietorious in Jane, when a
Jury acquitted her on all counts. She then joined many of the leading members,
‘ovher 4efemw ampaign in launching a new orgznization to defend prisoners and
challerge the rising tie of criinalzation Called the Nasional Allimce Against
Racist and Political Represion (NAARPR), te coalition had strong involve-
sient from the CP but brought together representatives of veveral radical onganis=
ations. The coalidon was especially involvec in ke effort o free the™"Wilmington
“Ten,” group of mostly Black North Caraina setvists collectively sentenced 10
22 yer in prison for burning dawn a grocery store during = mass uprising in 1971


Revalutior: The Prisor Rebelion Years 99

The tumuit owed to longsanding confit between Black communities and white
‘upronacts in the North Carolina port city. The cae was bile onthe word of
2 informer, and the prosecutor knowingly in-lided Klin members om the ju
while exchaing Afzcan Americans Yer, it took the res of the decade and an
‘ternational campaign tw Gee the ten Fom prison, They were not ofichly
pardcned, meaning their charges and convictions were vecated, un 2012

Aound the country, antiprion activiss who were not inearcerated sought to
do two things: support organizing led by primers and former prone, sna
imobiize public sympathy to reform or abolish prisons. Activis championed the
Jeadership coming fom incarcerated pecple. They also waged diferent public
<ducation campsigns. In NewYork. for ineance clletve of people che vo the
National Lawyers Guild (NLG) estblshed a newspaper of prison ists called
Midnight Socal. The paper took its name trom a Leadbelly song abot 4 tin
<arrying the oppresed to fcedom. While early issues contained legal advice fom
NLG members, people in prison wrote most cf the articles that apocared in “he
toner. The editors assembled the articles laid oue the newspaper and shipped it
back into prisons around the country so that prisoners could dialogue with cre
other and say abreast of developing ends in prison management”

Other projec sought tn amplify the veces of prisoners in comunity ongine
‘sing campaigns. By 1972, the Black Panther Party respoded to yeas of deally
severament teprenion and infighting by consolidating it operations into a local
Oakland project Much ofthe groups daily operations concerred the running of
an alternative school and the ongoing pubication ofthe Black Pah newspaper.
Both publicized police brutality end racism in pune
cf the San Quentin Sx.

Jn Berkeley, a group of radical criminologists formed the Prion Action Project

and ovganited the 1972 Prison Action Conference under the tile “exe dow the
vall"The phrae wat popular among actvstsit would be used ata mesting of
the Prisoners Soidariy Conmitte in Virginia afew months ten.” The confer.
sce covered isses sich is the inearceraon of youth, women, and people nf
<olorithe connection between domestic policing an fore'gn miitarsm and son-
tencing policy. The Prison Action Project declred is ayeinla to include politcal
education, "bringing attention tothe systematic oppresion ofthe comvic clas”
“Jevetopling] methods for protecting prisoners from offical retaliation during
their sruggle for justice and freedoms.” and resting “reforms which wake the
Iriton a more efectve tool of pacification" Their efforts were stunted, howerey,
Jn partwhen the University of California Berkeley closed the eximinalogy schol
and fired or resigned the profsors within it. They went onto start enrol
rime and Social Juste (now called Seca justi, to continue critical analyses of
policirg and pris.”

Many of these efforts were interonnected with what prioner:themseses
were doing Some continved to pursue widespread rebellions, wlile erhers-—
{Pecilly inthe South—pursued dramatic change thigh the lw Nowhere nas

including the ongoing case






100 Revolution: Tre Prison Rebelion Years

this litigious approach to grison reform more evident than in Texas, where
Chicano prisoners took the lead, Texas has long had one of the biggest pxison
systems in the country [ssyitem has ako been one of the cheapest co operate,
‘conditions inside had been s0 deplorable. As historian Robert Chase explains
turgil 1980, the Texas model of imprisonment involved a system in which mast
prisoners worked under a “slave model of agriculture labor” where they were
‘overseen not only by guards but ty "building tenders,” prisoners who ‘uncconed
the ame a6" slive-deiversystern” did more than a century eatlist. The building
tenders were other prisoners, almost exclusively white: who were given weapons
and authority to act as guard: im keeping odher prnouess i line. ln exchange, they
received special treatment—which included everything fiom permission to rape
‘otxer prisoners o early release. They were, 3s one prisoner described it“ violent,
‘organized gang sanctioned ky the adminisersion.”*™

“To take en this corrupt system, prisoners lauched an auspicious civil right
movement that was rooted in legal ckallenges. Inspired by Thomas X. Cooper’
legal victory in ln Chicane prisoner ramed Fred Cruz determined tht che
law mighe help end abuse in Texas prisons. While fing his own writs of habs
coups as protest, Cruz contacted Frances Freeman Jule, progsesive white sttor-
ney whom he would ter marry Jalet soon took on a number of Texas prisoners
as clits. Offciak moved all 27 of her clients into one unit, hoping that racial
division between Blac anc Chicano prisoners would keep them isalatee firm
cach oxher and fiom the rest ofthe grison population, Intead, the group grew
nore united, forming “an interracial collecene of radical thinkers, jathouse
attorneys. ard prison mobilizers"They called themselves the "Bight Hoe Squad”
afer their feld Ene number. They would wore the fields by day and prepare
lawton ie cells gh””

"The Eight Hoe Squad initiated a series of cases between 1968 and 1972. These

‘concerned issues af dus process, feedom of telgion, bor exploiatior, racial
segreg:rion,and tne building tender sytem. As we discuss ir Chapter 4,chese cases
produced a number of momentous legal rulings througnout the decade— including
‘one ehat, in 1980, would lead to the reorganization of Whe Tex prbou systenn.
“That ease began in 1972, waen a man named D:vid Ruiz ent a 12-puge petiion
to a federal judge outlining abuses in the Texas prison system.

[Rule dried his petition the same year Fred Cruz earned his release Inspired
by the Chicano movement that had taken shape durirg is en years of imprison
‘ment, Cruz was determined to embed prisoner rights wathin the movemen'’s
bank He started the il and Prison Coalicon to “educate Chicano youth on the
prisoners rights movemerk ané (0 bring the ‘ssue of prison reform with the
agen of lacaus (the cause)" Although Cruz’ effores outside of prison stalled,
his coatributionso prison litigation and jahoweelawyering lefta lasting imprirs.
With the aelp of legal support from professional lawers, orisoner-initiated
laws in dhe 1970s ould brirg incrwased federal oversight over the prison sys-
tems of entire sates, As with Cruz many of these lawsuits originated in che










evolution: The Pison Rebelion Years. 101

“sanbele states” ofthe South and West, where legacies of davery andl concuest aad
‘more evident iniuences on the structure of pesoms!”

‘While sunbelt prison systems were mined ia a chvery past the eden prion
system was experimenting with new modes ofisolaion to break dawn prisoner
capacity fa vesitance, Rooted in the popularity of behavioris: psychology, espe
tially its research into brainwashing these programs wer fis: put into effoct at
the federal pris in Marion, Located in southern Hlinois, Macion would imple-
‘ment what would become s halluark of modern American prions: lenghy
solitary confinement ané bekavior modification programs, More than 100)
Prsoners trom around the country were transerred to Marion in the spring of

972. The new transfers included some of the most disciplined and persistent
‘etivits from around the country. The largest group of transfers came from
Leavenworth, folowing a strike in which a multiracial group of prisoners shut
down work and set fire to their cells. Among those transferred to Marion included
members ofthe Black Liberation Army and the Republic of New Afika xs well as
Rafael Carcel Miranda, Caicany and Natve American actviss, white antrackts,
and others. These men had already strikes, organized study groups, published
‘landestine newspapers, and fled lawsuits aguitst prison conditions

Officials hoped thar concentrating sich troublemakers in unt place would
help ease protest at other files. Those at Marion used the prison as a bora
‘ory for experimenting with new forms of social control. In particular, Marion.
seplied psychic manipulation tactics developed by Edgar Schein, a prychiatrist at
MIT who studied brainwashing techniques used on American POWs during the
Korean Wat. The prion utilized his techiyues, a combination of rewards and
Punishments, The prison relaxed certain rules, sich a allowing prisoners 0 prow
their hair long, wear theit own clothes, and Ieok a: pornography. At the same
time, che prison subjected people to arbitrary punishments, and tipped any
pemonal agency from prione's though “briinw:shing, sersory deprivation,
redication, and prolonged isolation” As scholar Alan Gomez reports, "[elach
specific insituticnalized technicue muddled commenplace disinetions between
what consttuted punishment, rehabilitation, and torture” Ilirois Congressman
Ralph Metealfe described the control units“ long-term punishment urder the
‘sie of what is in fact, pseudo scientific experimentation.” A former warden
‘bluntly charactenzed the prison “The purzose of the Mation Contiol Unit isto
control revolutionary attitudes in the prison system and inthe society at Luge”

Ariving in April 1972, the new cransfers quickly set 0 work. Within three
months of wriving th, they had organized a treedom of Expresion. Committee
‘ofthe Feder Prisoners Coalition to “link political organizing with leg strategiesin
the court sytem’ Members ofthe committee joined the nacert Inmate Council,
“hich allowed them to communicate more easily wit other priseners. They devel-
‘oped a petiton outlining their grievances ard requested to participate in the pubic
Incarings about the federal prison system. They forged caalitions with host of
‘o-ganizations outsde of prison. especialy with progressne attorneys from the ACLU,








102 Revolution: Tre Prison Reselion Yeas

NAACP Legal Defznse Fund,and a radical legal collective headquartered in Chicago
called the People’ Law Offce (PLO). The Commitee sent is peition the United
[Nations as well at Chicano and ansprison publications,on July 4

[Not ewo week: later a guard beat a radical Chicano prisoner so severely that
hhc had to be hospitalized. Demanding shat the guard be Gred, a multicial group.
organized a disruptive srike that “closed the prison industries, burned cellblocks,
and provoked a week-long lockdown. Suikes and reprisils pe-sisted through
‘our che summer, « the prisoners organized themselves under a new group, the
Politica. Prisoners Liberation Front (PPLF).By the end of July, the prison placee
‘more tan 100 people n soltary confinement and cut off heir coats wit die
ouside world for more than owe weeks. It was a new experiment in isolation,
called a"consrol unit!" The control unit soled exe rebellious prsone:s from the
_seneral population, People held there faced sensory deprivation, denied access to
prison programs, had farther limits placed on their correspondence, and were
locked dow: as mach as 23 hoursa day. Control unit prisoners were denied access
to even the limited rights that other prisoners enjoyed. Inside the control unit
guards aeat and gassed priscners, took theit clotaing and legal materials, carned
off the electricity and water,and sepe tem in solitary indeinitely*

When the PPLE resumed contact with the PLO, the office’ lawyers quickly
filed suit on their behalf in the fill of 1972. After 18 months in solitary confine-
iment, 149 were released back into gerersl popubtion when they won their cate
‘on appeal in 1974. But while they may have won the battle, they lst che war. The
suit filed to close the cont unit. In 1983, officials placec the whole prison on
Tockdown—in effect, ting Marion into a ermanent contol urit. Ocher prisors
around the country set up their own control unis, using names such as Security
Housing Unis, Restrictive Maraetment ult, or Adusteaive Segs
Unis. In each case prisoners need not nave violated any laws or prison rules to be
sent to the contrel uniz. A new era of punishment was taking ove,

In he early 1970s, the fire of prisons was “up for grabs" Lberab. corserv-
sives, and radical ll batled over the funure of American prisons. By che middle of
he decade, the future of prisons seemed te promise both more righs and moe
punishment Prisoners were mounting, and winring, 2 series of jor legal chal-
lenges chat would reshape heir capsivity. In particular, cheve cases would extend
prisoner Pint Amondivene rights and limit che power of building wndersand other
ferms of organized sexual abuse. Yet, asthe rise of contol units and other forms of
violence demonstrated, he implementation of reform was often Eleak. As che scale
and fiequency of rebelliors slowed, prisoners continued to press their claims
through lavsuits and other kinds of prowst. They ended the period with an
cexpanced field oflegal resources their disposal But they faced increasing isolation.
and administrative vioknce as the era of mass incarcertion began. The incarcers~
tion rate began a steady, four-decade climb in 1573 as years of increasingly severe
policing resuked in more arrests and new p-ison construction, Dissident prisoners
had to adap: their pursuit ojustce toa new prison envirosmen:














evolution: The Pison Rebelion Years 103,

Notes

1 Chik, Alfied F “FM lmestgtee Bombing of Couhuuse Here” New Yr Tine,
Ostober 11, 970,79. The groups sstement i reprinted in Ayers, Fil, Berarcng
Dohrn. and J Jores, ed, Sing Bate Sing: The Ravfaivnay Poet Steno od
Commusiqus ofthe Wester Underground, 1970-1974, New York. Sevea Stones Ba,

2006. 160-161

Gémer, Alan Elio. "Resising Living Death a: Macion Federal Pententiay, 1972;

Redical History Revinw 96 (2004) 58-86,

33 Hinton, Elizabeth Kai. Fo the Ware Poerty tthe Wr on Crime Cambridge Hats
Universey Pree, 2016

‘4 Useem, Bert and Peer Kimball Stat of Sige: US. Pro Ris, 1971-1986. New York:
Oxford ninety Pres, 991,18. Those mambes vend te fea allethe numer
were likely higher.

5 American Friends Service Commitee. Sing for Joie: A. Report om Cre and
Pishnontin Ameria, New Youk: Hil and Wang 197i.

6 NewYork Sit Special Commixion om Ati ti. The Of Report the New ore
‘tte Spal Commision. New ork: Banear Bocks, 1572

7 Ib. 168

8 Trompmon, Heather Ann, "“Binded by a ‘Bartuic’ South: Prison Horrors Innmte
Ause.and the tronic History of American Penal form” in Maule D. Laser ad
Joreph Crespino ed, The Myth of Scuthern Exeptionaiim (4-98). New York. Oxf
University Pre, 2010

9 The Owiaw, reprimed in Berkeley Bab, 6: 4 Qanuary 26-Febriaty 1, 1948): 8-9,
Schreiber. James A."San Quentin Cont e Serke” Berkeley Bul 624 (enmayy 20.
February 1, 1968)

10 The Outlaw. ly 1. 1968, Jaca Mtl Papers Sox 4, Foie t

M1 Berger. Cape Nati, 64-84 pusim.

12 Bloom joshua and Waldo F. Martin, Je. Blk Aasinet Empire The istry an Pts of
‘the Black Pattr Paty. Berkeley: Unversity of Califomia Pres, 2012, Murch, Dory
“Ling the City: Edwation, Migotion, and fe Ris ofthe Blatt Pay Pay Ove,
Galfris; Chapel Hil: Univesity of Nerth Carlita Pres, 2010; Herger Coping
Nation, 4-84 pei,

13. Bloom and Mittin. Back gaint Empire, 10,

14 bid, 137,

15. Cleaver, Eldriege. Seal ome, New Yer: Dell, 1968, 14,5859

16 Hinton, From the ir om Pao 19 fhe Wr om Crime. One ofthe mos: vonuovenial
Undercover pelicing units at the time wat the Dessit-bued Stop The Rebber es,
Enoy Sife Steets (STRESS). Using decoys to addhes low lox! deny coves te
STRESS unit killed 17 African Americans in two year-—most of tiem unarmed, See
also Hinton, Eizabeth "Why We Shawl Rsconcdor the We on Crist” Tine Man
20.2015 availble at hep ime con /3744059/wat-on-rime history and Thom,
Sor. Hegher Ann. Whose Dari: Palit Unto and Race in'« Modo
unica: Cornell University Press, 2004, 81-99,

17 Nixon, Richard. “Address Accepring, Preidensial Nomination” August 8, 1968;
vworvcprsidencyueshedws/?pid=25968,

18 Cortrigh, David. "Black GI Resitance During the Vietnam Wat!” Vitnant Genus
tin 2:1 (1990): 51-64; Coreriht, David. Sldies in Rel GI Resene Daring he
Vianam War. Chicago: Haymarket Boots, 2008, Federion, William D. stnoute
Movements 2nd Prison Uprisings: A Comparative Study.” Seva Scene Quarta
59: 3 (1978): £09-524

19 Plt, Tory. Beyond Tiere Mls: Genalogy of American nite. New Yok: St Martins
Pres, forthcoming, manuscript in author’ les











am Cp


104 Revoluton: The Prion Rebelion Yeas

20 “Joho N, Mitchel, Dies at 75; Major Fgure in Watergate” New York Times, November

21 Wiener, Jon, ed, Caapincy inthe Stee: The Betsordiary Tia of the Ciicago Eight
[New York law Prot, 2006

22 Blagoon, Kuw et sl Lo for Me in the Waitin: The Callatve Autobiography of the
[Now 24. New Vork-Vintage, 1971; Kenpo, Maney ‘Th Briar Pathe Th Tal
‘he Rothe 21. New York: Da Capo Pres, 1973/1937

23 Bc and Marin, Rack Api Fi, 919.291, 253-260,

24 tid, 247-266, Macfargubar, Nei “Harold M. Mulvey, 86 Judge at Tense Black
Pander Tiak”="National Srike Information Cena Newletee” 8 May 12,1570}.
Hiarkn Hack Hanther Pay Papers, Folder 22, Schomourg Cente for Reseach in
Black Calure

25 Georgakas,Dan and Marvis Surkin. Dart, Do Mind Dying, Boston: South End Pres,
1906, Oni, ewan "Sel-Determinarinn Means Determining Sel Titeyle Politic.
and the Teepuble of New Aft, 1958-1989" Ph.D. diss, Jnivesity of Mois at
UUrbana-Chamsg 2013,

26 Feria, Juon M.""With the Soal of x Human Rainbow”: Los Sie, Black Panchen,
2nd Third Werllism iy Sn Francie’ in Chie Caron, ed Tw Mars tat Shoo he
City San France 1958-1978 (3-47) San Francico- Cry Lights, 2011

29 Sith, aul Chant and Rabort Alon Wri Fir « Huron din Mavemant foe
‘Alaa 11 Wouaded Knee. New York: New Pres, 1996; Suppor for Alcaraz India,
yey Socal Pret Colleton, Bann Library, Unierdty oF California Berkeley
Reel 23,

2 Siig Michael. Johny Casha ol Pre The Making oa Marine: New Vor:
De Capo, 2004,

26 bid, Dearmon, Ton. “First Angry Man of Coney Mace” Naw Ye Tine
Sepremiber 2, 1969, 31; Mitford Jessica, Kind and Usual Punish The Dison Busnes

New Vor: Knaph 1973, 276-997,

Yoo Min'S. Ths Melancholy History of Soledel Priam: In Whi « Uspian Scheme Tans

Bedi, New York: Harpers Maavine Pree, 1973, 29-68,

S31 bi. 20,

30 Commins Eric Rive nd Fall of Califia Radial Prison Movonet. Palo Alt: Sanford
Univesity Pres, 1994, 168,

1 Janne, Vatker "Convict Labor, Civic Welfare: Rehabilitation in. Califomias Prisons.

1941-1971" PhD. dis, University of California San Diego, 2005.

34 Cummins, Rise and Ball oCalfornias Racal Pisow Movement, 24-32, 78-7, 165,
Soledid Brothers De‘ense Comite "Soledad Brothes” pape, Soledad Brothess
Defense Commitee, Vertal Fil Tamiment Library, NYU.

38 Yee. The Mlatcholy History, 83-84; John Clutchee lerer te Dan Berger, December
19.2012,

38 Cummins, Rise and Fall of Caljonas Radial Prison Movement, 180-182; Prison
Soldariy Commistee, Frm Soledad co San Quentin (Sin Francisco, c. 1972),
Anthony Plat, Private Collection,

37 Bear. Captive Nain, 98-109.

3 Jessen Mitford to Beajanin Spock, May 21, 1970, Jasica Mitford Papers, Box 48,
Folie

59 Fo, JickV."A Collision with UC Regents” San Fano Examiner, July 16,197
nels Davis © George fickson, June 10, 1970, Meikejohr: Civil Libeies Insti
RRevords, Care 39, Poder Levers to Geonge Jackson, Bancoft Libary, University of
Californias Berieley

44) Beyger, Captive Nain, 125-127.

441 Foscaule Michel, Dipl and Pash The Bt the Prison. New York: Vintage, 1985,
(977), Heiner Brady"Foscasle and te Blk Panthers” Ciy 11:3 2007) 313-356.
















Revoltion: The Pison Rebellon Years 105,

$2 Jackson, Geonge L. Soledad Bthr: Prison Leters of Geog Judson, New York: Bavam
Books, 1970, 16,25, 26,29 Berger, Captive Nation, 9-96, 105" 20.

43 Bernsten, Lex. “The Age of Jckson: George Jickion and the Caltute of American
Pstsonsin die 1970,” Journal ofAmercan Gali 30:3 September 20077 310-333,
his book, Ameria ithe Prison: Ats and Paitin Prison atthe 1970, Chapel Vl
Universiy ef Noreh Carolina Pres 2010,

‘4 Losier, Tousint.“Agains‘Law and Order Lackup: The 1970 NYC hil Rebels"
ae un Clas 59:1 OTN): I-99,

45 Ros, Geonge. “Changes in the New York City Houses of Detention: Riots and
Reaction Axgst~Octaber 1970—iMarch 1974" MPA thes, John Jay College, 14,

[Liberation News Service.“ATak with Martinez, Hunte filExIamite” Bla Pani,

Januaty 16, 1970, 4:"Text of fombs Inmae Grievances,” New Kok Tacs Agua tT,

1970, Loser. "Against Law and Order Locka"

Now Yark City Boind of Corection. Regt onthe Future ofthe Mantatan Hos of

aaetion. New York: New York City Board of Corrections 1974: Dan-Cotta junit

‘Gender, ant the Sate: Laine and Latina Prien Paice Albany SUNY. Teg,

1996, 4s Riser, Geraldo, "To the Eater” Naw Vk Tines, January 12, 1971. 3

‘Tessin “Aginsc Law md Onder Lockup™

47 “6Arreged tail i Pla for Panther” New Yrk Times, Match 8, 1370, 73.

48 Davis,AnglaY, cn Autobrapy, New York Intemational Books, 988, )-75;jailhouse
{quote comes fom page 65.

© Thompwn, Hexhe: Ann. “Rehinkng Workng-Clas Struggle through the Lens of
the Carceral Sate: Toward a Labor History of Iemates and Guatds" Later 8.3 (2011)
22-Thompson, Heather Anh. "Back Activin Behind Bars: Toward a Resting of hc
American Civil Rights Movement,” mnpuished manascrip in author’ files ad ted
svih permission othe author

50 ‘The manifesto is reprinted in Davis, AngellY. and Betina Aptheker, ed. They Come
fn he Manin. New York Shnt 1971, 05-74,

51 Tewin, John and Wille Holder “Hissory ofthe Priseners' Union.” The Ovlaw 21
(1973): 1-3, Mico Kin and Usual Pusher 256-257; Tibbs, Donald F From Blake

Power to Prion Pour: The Making of Jones North Carlaa Priones Lab Union

New Yor Palgrave Manillan,2012;Cummias. Ihe Rise al Fall Colfornes Reser

rian Movement, 199-206,

Besger, Coprte Nation 177-222,

‘Conway. Marshall Eddie and Domingue Stevenson. Mahal Law:The Lf ané Tne: of

1 Ralimte Bk Pathos OaNlanls AR Pres, 2011; Otadele, mari Abubskaty Fete

Lend The Te Story ofthe Tals ofthe RIVA-11 in Misisipp ond the Connuig Ste

Rea wn lndcpondent lack Naton a the Deep South, Wishing, D.C Howse of

Songhay, 1984

54 Wallace, Herman. “The Rise and Pall of the Angola Prison Chapter of the Blick
Panther Par” nd, wwwitabouttimebpa.con:/Poiical Pisouer/pdf/The Rive,
snd Fall.of th_Avgola Prison Chapter ot the Black. Panther Partpa

55 US. Congress, Hous of Representatves, Select Comittee on Crime. Rafe of Our
Contin Sem: Report by the Seat Commiter on Crime, Waahingior, De Ge,
Gowernmnent Printing Offce,1973;"Peison Suge, 1970-1971" in Hi Behind Wal
4 one-time newpaper about yu sanertebetion®,

55 Beyer. Captive Natin, 1-147,

57 Jackion, George. Blood in My Eye, Bakimore:Dlack Clisscs Press, 1990,

58 Quoted in Thampson, Heather Ann. “Lessons foe Atta: From Prisoner Rebslion to
Mau tnesreeraion and Bach” Salisn and Demuoty, 8:3 2014 16s 469

59 Reorintad in Wicker A Tine to Di, 401402.

(60 Tom Wicker quoted in The Sougge Inside contrence bocket, wp, Anthony Pht,
Private Colleton





ee
1106. Revolution: The Prion Rebelon Yeas

G6 Rusell Oswald, quoted in Camp Jordan. Icacerating the Crisis: Fredo Straggle nd the
Rise of the Nosh Ste Berkeley: Unisersey of California, 2016; Cunnissham,
Dery Michael Deusch, and Elizabeth Fink. "Remembering Attica Forty Yeas
Late” Prion Liga Nowe, Sepeember 15,2011. 1

{62 Thompson, Hener Ann. Blod inthe Wer "he Ata Prison Uprising of 1971 and Is
Leu New Vo Pantheos, 2015: Cri! bjstie: Death and Polis t Aria, rete
by Christine Christopher md David Marshall, Blue Sky Project, 2012.

65 Merger Capt Nato, 14: Cunningham, Deusch, nd Fink "Remembering Arica”

{64 Onshe Sat Quentin Six, te Berger. Captive Nation, 214-222; on Ata, se: Thompson
lod te War

65 Main, Eric. Conmale Gonge: An Duestigtion wo. te Lit, Poti Though, and
“Assusinatin of Geo Jaks New York: Hrper & Ron, 1972, 132-148

66 Johnson, Roberta Atm."The Prson Berth 0 Blac Power," Jamal of Blue Suis 5:4
(Jane 1975). 397: Nitford. Kinl and Usua Parsee, 298-300; Bissnette, Jamie.
When the Prisners Ran ale Te Story i the Movement fo Drisne Abo, Bosto
South Ere Pres, 2008, 12]-Amrican Friends Service Comrrttee. Sng fr Jase:
Report on. Céime and Budhment in wera. New York Hill and Wang, 1971; Berger
Cape Nation 190; Perkirson. Texas Tough, 28,

6 Jordan, Sel “Peso Reform: In Whose Interex2” Cimind Law Ballin 7:9 (1971
"779-787. "Hlow Many Live?” four backs 2:1 Geptember 30,1871): I; quote from
New England Pesoness Association sesleter, cuotec in Simuel, Liz, “Impovising
fon Realty: The Roots of Prison Abolition” in Dan Berger, ed, The Hiden 1970
ities o Raia (2).New Bransick: Rutgers Univerny Ps, 2010,

(8 Gemer, Alan Eladia "Nests Vidas Corren Cis Paalelas: Chicano, Independen-
tisus and the Prison Rebelionsin Lewvenwrh, 1969-1972" in Sizanne Oboer eS,
‘Besind Bas: Latino as and Prism inthe United States 71-36). New York: Palgrave
Macraiin, 200% Mendon, Lois Ged dala and thea Machine: My Wespon is
ny Pen, Sele Wing by Rail Sains, Astin: University of Texas Press 2006

69 "Aiderion of oar beds 2 2 (crober 31, 1971):6: Nicholsen, Joannie." AMter Ati,”
four backs 228 (Apel 30, 1972 19.

50 Thama Emily "Lesoos iv SeleDeferse: Gender Violence, Racial Criminalizanon, and
Anticareral Feminam,” WSG 43: 3-4 (all-Winee: 2013): 52-7; Bureon-Ress,
Daniel "War Behind the Walls Work Strikes and Prisoner Sei-Organization m1 US.
Prisons, 1967-1976" Bacaelorthess, Oberlin College, 1998; Lav, Victoria. Resistance
Buhind Bars The Sirah of lncteratd Wonen. Oaklack PM Pres, 2012; Diar-Coto,
Gand, Et, and ths Sta, Burhan, Kaibryn Watterson, Women in Prism
Now Yrk: Doubleday 1973,

71 Bin -James."An Open Let to My Sister, Angela¥. Dais"in IfDhey Come in the
Moning 23.

12 Ciel, Ear. “Teximony Begins ia the Davis Case: Winsess Sis Posecutor Nay
Five fluenced Herr Mew Yak Lines, Nareh 31,1972, 26: Apdeket. The Mona
Beals,

73 Janken, Kenneth Robert. The Wiimagion Ten: Hen, Inte, aul the Rie of Dek
Polis whe 1970s Chapel Hil: Uriversiy of North Caraina Pes, 2015;"We Can
Fy ick ant Wits The Progam ofthe Nail Allaie Aguins: Rac and Plead
Represion’ in NAARDR Papers, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culeue.

14 Wenger Cape Naton, 239-24,

75. Murch Livin or the Ciy,Abran JoNina M."Raising the Consciousnes' ofthe People:
The Bick Panther Intetcommmumal News Service, 1567=1900"" in Ken Wacherger
cds, Voces fr the Under: Insider Hstois ofthe Vetwam Bia Unlergand Pes,
st 2339-08). East Lansing Mietigan Seate Univeity Fes, 2012

76 “Why PSC Says ar The Wals Down” yer, Frisoner Sol darity Commiste Vertical
le, lamest Libary, NYU.














Revolution: The Prison Rebelicn Years 107



77 Prion Action Project.
1979): 40

‘78 Chase, Robert T. “Cell Trogh, Self Taught The Chicano Mowemnt Behind Bars
{ban Crcanes, ural Prisons andthe Prsoners Rights Movement Jem! Un
Hisory 41:5 (2015):841, £44, 88,

79 hid 4G see aso Chase, RobertT.“Saves ofthe State ReveltsSotthern Prison Labor
nda Prson-Made Civil Right Movement, 1945-1980." fi Rewer H.Zieger of
{Lian Labor the New Seth (177-23). Gainesville: Univerty Pras of ones S018

{80 Chase "Cell Tsight, Self Taught" 887

81 Chae, Robert: and Norwood Andiews, ds, Cag the Ameria Wes: Ina,
Inmigraion Déction/Depsratog, and Resitance. Chapel Hil: Univerity of Nock,
Capslina Press, forthcoming.

82 Games, “Ressing Living Death,” 62,59, 6,61, See ao Mitfor.Jeies, Kind and
sl Purtshmest:The Prices Bust. lew Yorks Vintage, 1973 toads

83 Gomez. "Resisting Living Death” 70,

84 Thid 7,

85 bide also Mendes. rasainas an the Jil Machine, which contains Salinas diy
‘mcr Hie side the Marion Control Unie in 1973,

86 Bernstein, Amerie he Prion, 5.

"Tae Sougae Inside,” Chime and Soil Juice 4: (al Winvce



‘Troe Lap Pro Zin Daze
PL Ban tags
Comemeh GA Saag
a SELE-DETERMINATION

‘SELF-DETERMINATION IS THE IDEA THAT COMMUNITIES

SHOULD BE ABLE TO DETERMINE THEIR OWN DEALINGS

WITHOUT BEING CONTROLLED OR RESTRAINED BY

OUTSIDE On OOVERNIMENT FORCES. | Conny afi
foul ince conricpractny tar fr ding wit ara, ba
ihr and reltions whoa gosanuntics ee
Te grees determination means that members ofa cmmuniy ne
aa to neh thet age. at ney ten # wt

wer is shared fai aS 8 Dr

eee A ianaielrreeesi eens

Aboltonst efforts o bring an endothe ty ae eres a

eight gaia Dy

foe he la afe They ase pean rng es
find seoorces to theoe commutes reelected byte Fics

‘os! sgpresive and punishing instations:

‘Many’ ber spc [oc suf decrminaton se ngrioning entre fae 3



Sead alone sey ta recta
Yb cain eeame a Mies tafe
Eo force RS Oy ecb ae
ie vain yet ps egupcoe pobre
maracas a te ang
Ig RRP Sper as sanaepenpe wo

The PIC deliertely and fanatically prevents sel-deermination,
Ene cis “cel Se SoS a
UG ater dont ie sy eae aa a
Hectone seo

ofexpresaing Be alc ae aeare te Sop the acs Dy pee at hee
oye, sentelcng? environmantaly destructive tadicties” eta ie
‘exploitation, wattmakong,

‘Self-determination is also a guiding principle for abolition. Whie there
Gr pole dtetar iE deal a salt doer ang’ prs ers ae
forbbve deena coud be made and forhow to ben ht wank eke

‘Trae np Prom Zine Disco
PO. Bax ys
Cae apg